S?ieldoH  &  Compayty's  Text-^ooJi's 


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ANALYTICAL  AND  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR. 


PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR 


OF   THE 


ENGLISH  LANGUAGE; 


WITH 


AI^ALYSIS     OF    SEI^TTEITOES. 


BY 


Rev.  peter  BULLIONS,  D.D.,       - 

LATB  PB0FKS80R  OF  LANGUAGM  W^iH3  Il^ANT  ACAEEMT,jCnD  AUTHOR  OF  THB  BEBIBS 
or  GEAMMAK8,  GEBEK,  Z.A.Zil^l  ASiD  JsKtrUSH,  0«  TfiB  SAME  PJUAN,  BTO. 


BE  VIS  E  D    EDITION. 


ITEW  YORK: 

SHELDON  &  CO.,  No.  677  BROADWAY 

AND  214  &  216  MERCER  STREET 

Ukdeb  Grand  Central  Hotel, 

1871. 


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PREFACE 


It  is  now  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  since  the  first  publication 
of  Dr.  Bullions's  "Principles  of  English  Grammar."  The  history 
of  that  book,  and  of  the  "  Analytical  and  Practical  English  Gram- 
mar"  which  followed  it,  has  been  contemporary  with  the  progress 
we  have  made  in  mastering  the  principles,  laws,  and  usages  of  the 
language  itself ;  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  we  are  indebted  to  no  one 
more  than  to  the  ajithor  of  this  treatise  for  the  results  that  have 
been  achieved. 

Among  the  first  to  discuss  the  Analysis  of  Sentences,  he  has  given 
a  clear  and  succinct  statement  of  the  principles  relating  to  this 
department,  and  reduced  all  elements,  and  even  idioms,  to  a  simple, 
yet  comprehensive  system. 

This  treatise  is  therefore  not  the  work  of  a  day,  but  the  fruit 
of  twenty-five  years  c^  intelligent  thought,  aided  by  the  daily  prac- 
tical experience  of  the  school-room. 

In  the  present  revised  edition  of  the  "Analytical  and  Practical 
English  Grammar,"  the  order  of  subjects,  method  and  classification, 
which  had  given  the  former  work  such  enviable  reputation  among  a 
large  class  of  our  most  successful  teachers,  have  been  for  the  most 
part  retained.  The  language,  even,  has  been  generally  preserved, 
and  only  such  changes  have  been  admitted  as  the  present  wants 
of  the  school-room  seem  to  demand.  It  is  hoped  that  the  few 
alterations  which  have  been  thought  necessary  will  enhance,  rather 
than  diminish,  the  value  of  the  treatise  as  a  text-book  of  practical 
grammar. 

The  most  radical  departures  from  the  text  of  the  author's  edition 
have  been  made  in  the  divisions  of  the  verb,  and  the  classification  of 
sentences  ;  yet  these  present,  in  point  of  fact,  little  else  than  a 
change  of  nomenclature, — the  distinctive  characteristics,  illustrations, 
and  examples  being  retained. 

Tables  of  the  different  parts  of  speech  have  been  given,  for  the 
purjwse  of  presenting  to  the  eye  of  the  learner,  at  one  view,  the  dis- 
tinctions which  are  more  fully  discussed  under  the  separate  heads. 

Tabular  classifications  of  the  finalysis  of  the  sentence  have  \m&i 
presented,  for  the  sake  of  greater  clearness. 


ctfm^fi7 


IT  PREFACE. 

The  alterations  wliicli  have  been  cautiously  admitted  in  the 
phraseology  of  the  rules  of  Syntax  will,  it  is  hoped,  meet  with  favor. 

The  brief  divisions  of  accent  and  structure  of  words  in  their 
places,  pp.  16  and  18,  and  the  fuller  discussion  in  the  Appendix  (1) 
can  not  but  enhance  the  value  of  the  book,  and  afford  facilities  for  a 
more  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  integral  structure  of  our  lan- 
guage, to  many  who  will  have  access  to  no  other  source  of  sucli 
information. 

It  is  believed  that  little  is  omitted  that  would  add  value  to  this 
treatise  as  a  text-book  for  general  use,  whilst  much  is  presented,  not 
found  in  books  of  its  class,  but  so  tersely  and  clearly  stated,  and  so 
judiciously  arranged,  as  not  to  make  the  volume  cumbersome. 

As  to  the  general  plan  and  scope  of  the  work,  the  following,  from 
the  author's  Preface,  is  suggestive  : — 

"The  subject  of  the  Analysis  of  Sentences  *  *  *  is  here 
introduced  in  its  proper  place,  and  to  an  extent  in  accordance  ^vith 
its  importance.  Many  questions  on  disputed  points  have  been 
examined  with  much  care;  and  something,  it  is  hoped,  has  been 
done  to  contribute  to  their  settlement :  and  when  this  required  more 
srace  than  was  proper  to  be  taken  up  in  the  body  of  the  work,  the 
discussion  has  been  thrown  into  the  Appendix.  A  variety  of  exer- 
cises has  been  introduced  at  every  step,  with  directions  for  the 
manner  of  using  them.  To  every  part  of  speech,  an  oral  exercise, 
of  the  inductive  kind,  has  been  annexed  as  a  specimen  of  the  way 
in  which  the  mind  of  the  learner  may  be  trained  to  think  and  reason 
on  the  subject,  and  prepared  to  profit  more  by  the  exercises  that 
follow. 

"  By  adopting  the  plan  of  a  running  series  of  numbers  to  mark  the 
paragraphs,  reference  from  one  part  to  another  is  rendered  more  con- 
venient, and  is  employed  wherever  it  was  thought  to  be  profitable. 

"  In  the  Syntax,  *  *  *  the  rules  are  arranged  so  that  all  that 
belongs  to  one  subject  is  collected  under  one  head,  instead  of  being 
scattered  in  different  places ;  and  the  proper  subordination  of  parts 
is  exhibited  in  a  series  of  subordinate  rules,  wherever  it  was  necea- 
siry.  *  *  *  In  the  rules  and  definitions  throughout,  accuracy, 
brevity,  euphony,  and  adaptation  to  the  practical  operations  of  the 
school-room  have  been  particularly  attended  to.  No  startling  novel- 
ties have  been  introduced ;  at  the  same  time,  where  it  was  thought 
that  a  change  would  be  an  improvement,  it  has  been  made." 

August,  1867. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PA«B. 

Jjangnage 3 

GrammaVf  Definitions  and  Divisions 8 

PART  I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Letters,  Divisions  and  Power  of 5 

Elkmentary  Sounds 6 

Phonetic  Classification 8 

Sf/llables 9 

Spelling,  Kl'les  for 11 

Capitals,  Use  of 14 

Accent 16 


PART  n.— ETYMOLOGY. 

Words,  General  Divisions  of 17 

Structure  of 18 

Parsi NG  OF 22 

Parts  of  Speech 23 

Nouns,  Definition  and  Division  of 23 

Observations  on 24 

Table  of,  and  Exercises 25 

Accidents  of 26 

Person  of— Observations  on 27 

Okndes  of 28 

Observations  on 30 

Exercises  on 81 

NiTHBES,  Definition  of 32 

Plural,  Rules  for 82 

Irregular 83 

Exercises  on 86 

Observations  on 87 

Plural  of  Proper  Names.. 8S 

Case  of,  General  Rules  for 89,  40 

Nominative,  Use  of 39 

Construction  of 190,  211,  213,  219 

Possessive,  Use  of— how  formed ..."   89 

Observations  on 40 

Construction  of 232 

Objective,  Use  of 40 

Following  Transitive  Verbs 221 

Prepositions 224 

Without  a  Governing  Word 226 


COKTEIf  TS 


PA9B. 

Nouns,  Inflection  of 40 

Oral  Exkkcises  on 41 

Pakstng  of 42 

exkhcises  on 44 

Article,  Definition  and  Classes  op. 45 

Pabbing  of— Exercises  on , 46 

Construction  of 201 

Adjectives,  Definition  of , 47 

Division  of 48 

Table  of 51 

Comparison  of 51 

^ulesfor 52 

Irregular  Comparison 53 

Not  Compared 54 

Parsing  of 55 

Oral  Exercises  on 56 

Exercises  on 57 

Construction  of 196 

FronoUJis,  Definition  and  Division  of 58 

Table  op 59 

Personal 59 

Simple 60 

Declension  of. 61 

Observations  on 61 

Compound 64 

Parsingof,  and  Oral  Exercises  on 64 

Exercises  on 65 

Construction  of % 206 

Bblative 66 

Inflection  and  Use  of.... 67 

Compound 69 

Parsing  of 70 

Exercises  on 71 

Construction  of 209 

Iktbeeogativb  and  Eesponsive 72 

Parsing  of,  and  Exercises  on 73 

Adjbctivk,  Definition  and  Division  of. 74 

Possessive , 75 

Distributive -76 

Demonstrative 67 

Indefinite 77 

Parsingof,  and  Exercises  on.. 78 

Construction  of 196 

nfr6»,  DEPTNmoN  of 79 

Classification  op 80 

Oral  and  other  Exercises  on ; 82 

Formation  of  Tenses 88 

Auxiliary 88 

Use  of  "Shall,"  "Will,"  etc...,, '.  84 


OONTEKTS.  Til 


PAGB. 

T«rbsy  Pabsikoof 85 

Auxiliary,  Exercises  on 85 

Anomalous  Use  of 89 

Inflbction  of  ;  Accidents  op 80 

YoicB,  Active 90 

Passive 90 

Moods,  Division  of 93i 

Indicative 93  - 

Potential 93 

Bubjunctive 94 

Ckvnstruction  ot 237 

Imperative 95 

InfiniUve 96 

Construction  of 239 

Tknsks,  Division  of, 96 

Of  tlie  Indicative  Mood 97-100 

Of  the  Potential  Mowl 100 

Of  the  Subjunctive  Mood ioi 

Of  the  Imperative  Mood 103 

Of  the  Infinitive  Mood 103 

Construction  of 239 

Connection  OF 246 

Pastioipudb,  Division  of 104 

In  tngr  in  a  Passive  Sense 105 

as  a  Verbal  Nona .  107 

Construction  of. 243-246 

ITUMBER   AND  PeBSON  OF 107 

CJOMJUGATION  OF 108 

Table  of 109 

Of  the  Irregular  Verb  "to  be" 112 

Sentences — the  Subject 116 

Of  the  Regular  Verb  "  to  love,"  Active  Voice 117 

Parsing  of 118 

Oral  Exercises  and  Exercises  on....  119 

The  Objective  Case 121 

Negative  Form 123 

Interrogative  Form , 124 

Progressive  Form 125 

PboGBBSSIVB  Fobm,  Exercises  on 125 

Passive  Voice 126 

Observations  on,  Exercises  on 128, 129 

Ibregitlab,  List  of 130 

Defective. •  136 

Impersonal 136 

Exercises 137 

CoNSTRueTiON  OF 215-219 

^idverbsyDzri^niov  or 133 

Classification  of 183 

Con  JUNCTIVK , 140 


yiii  cojS^TEi^TS 


Adverbs,  Formation  akd  Derivation  of 140 

Comparison  of 142 

Parsing  of,  and  Exercises  on 142 

Construction  op 253,  254 

Prepositions,  Definition 142 

Table— List 145 

Observations  on 146 

Parsing  of,  and  Exercises  on.... 147 

Construction  of 228 

Interjections,  Definition  and  List  of 148 

Parsing 118 

Construction  of 253 

Conjunctions,  Definition  and  Division  of 149 

Conjunctions,  Table  op 150 

Parsing  OF,  and  Exercises  on 151,152 

Construction  of 253' 

Parsing,  Different  Kinds  of 153 

Ettmoloqioal,  Method  of 153 

Model  of 154 

Exercises  in 156-161 


PAKT  IIL— SYNTAX. 

Syntax,  Definitions 162 

Sentences,  Classification  op 163 

Elements  of 1C5 

Analysis  of 166 

A  Single  Sentence,  Its  Parts 167 

Observations  on 163 

Subject  of 170 

Modiflcations  of 172 

OfModifyingWords 173 

Predicateof 174 

Modifications  of 175 

Limiting  Clauses 177 

Ck)MPOTnn),  Definition  of 180 

Members,  Connection  of 181 

Analysis,  Directions  for 1 82 

Models  of 183 

Exercises  in 187 

Construction  of— General  Principles 188 

Surtax,  Parts  of .189 

KuLES  OF 190-193 

EULE8. 

Rule  J.— Substantives  in  Apposition 193 

Mule  JJ,— Adjective  with  a  Substantive 196 

Comparatives  and  Superlatives ,, !-• 


COlNrTEITT  s.  ix 


PAOR. 

Jtule  III.— Amicvn  and  its  Noun 201 

Utile  IF. — Pkonoun  AND  ITS  Antecedent— Special  Rules 206 

Jiule  v.—  Relative  and  it3  Antecedent 209 

llule  FjT.— The  Subjkot-Nominative 211 

Hule  FJJ.— Tub  Nominative  Absolute  or  Independent 213 

Special  Rules  for 213 

JRule  FJXT.— The  Veeb  and  its  Subject 214 

Special  Rules  for 215 

Jtnle  IX. — The  Predicate-Nominative 219 

Jiule  X.— The  Object  after  Tbansitivb  Vbbbs 221 

Special  Rules 221 

Jiule  XI.—TiiK  Objective  after  Prepositions 224 

Jtule  XII. — Puepositions  after  Certain  Words 223 

Utile  XIZJ.— Possessive  Limiting  Substantives 232 

Utile  XJF.— Subjunctive  Mood 287 

Jtule  XV. — Infinitive  Mood 239 

Special  Rules 239 

Jtule  XFX— Part[ciple3 242 

Special  Rules 24:3 

Hide  XVII. — Connection  of  Tenses 24G 

/^MZeXFZJX.— Adverbs— Special  Rules 249-251 

Mule  XXX.— Conjunctions 253 

Special  Rules 264 

Rule  XX.— Prepositions 258 

R ule  XX J. — Interjectiom* 258 

General  Rule 259 

JSlUpsis — When  Admissible 26D 

"When  not  Ad.mi6Sible 262 

JVirsinflr,  Syntactical,  Definition  of,  Model  of. 263 

Exercises,  Promiscuous,  on  Rules  of  Syntax 266-269 

Inii)roj)er  Expressions,  List  of 269,  270 

Punctuation 270 

Comm A,  Rules  for 271 

Semicolon,  Rules  for > 273 

Colon,  Rules  for 274 

Period 275 

Interrogation 275 

Other  Marks  used  in  Writing 276,  277 

figures.  Different  Kinds  of 277 

Op  Etymology 278 

Of  Syntax 278 

Of  Rh etorio 279 

Poetic  License 281-2S3 


PAET  IV.— PROSODY. 

JfVoaoefy,  Division  of 284 

Elocution ^284 

Ybbsification 285 


CONTENTS 


PA  OK, 

Prosody,  Versification,  Feet 285 

Poetic  Pauses 292 

Composition 203 

The  Use  of  Grammar  in  Composition 295 

TukLaw  of  Language 205 

Kules  for 296. 297 

Hints  fob  Correct  and  Elegant  "Writing 298 

TuEMEs  FOB  Composition 8O5 

Appendix, 

I. — Suffixes 807 

II.— Gender  of  Nouns 816 

III.— The  Pronouns,  Mine,  Thine,  etc 8I7 

IV.—"  What,"  as  a  Relative 813 

V. — "As"  AS  A  Relative 319 

VI.— Adjective  Pronouns .• 320 

VII.— The  Verb 322 

VIII.— Division  of  Verbs 823 

IX. — Passive  Participle.  Analyse*  of  tub  Vbbb 324 

X.— First  and  Second 330 

XI. — Two  First,  Thrf^  Last,  etc 331 

XII. — Abbreviations \ 833 

ZIIL— Foreign  Words , 836 


INTRODUCTION". 


Before  a  text-book  is  put  into  the  hands  of  the  pupil,  he  is  already  in 
practical  possession  of  the  elements  of  his  mother-tongue.  Grammar 
should  supplement  this  practical  knowledge,  by  reducing  it  to  fixed 
laws  ;  classiiying  its  elements,  and  establishing  canons  of  criticism  for 
the  preservation  of  the  purity  of  its  forms,  and  giving  power  and  ele- 
gance to  expression. 

A  series  of  preparatory  exercises  in  a  simple,  and,  at  the  first,  some- 
what informal,  manner,  both  in  the  discussion  of  the  meaning  and  use 
of  words  in  familiar  sentences,  and  in  the  construction  of  such  sen- 
tences, will  be  found  of  incalculable  value,  as  tending  to  awaken  a 
definite  interest  in  mastering  the  successive  steps  of  the  science. 
These  exercises  should  develop  at  least — 

I.  The  ^neauhif/8  and  uses  of  the  ''  construction-words'* 
of  the  language,  as — 

1.  Such  verbs  as  do,  be,  have,  inay,  can,  shall,  etc,  that  are 
Bo  closely  connected  with  our  existence,  our  experiences  of  the  exter- 
nal world,  and  our  modes  of  thought  and  speech  in  regard  thereto. 
The  words  of  this  class  have  a  conventional  use,  not  for  themselves, 
but  chiefly  as  aids  in  expressing  the  relations  of  ideas  represented  by 
other  words.  Thus,  in  the  expression,  "  Grass  is  green,"  the  use  of  is 
is  not  to  express  existence,  for  that  is  assumed,  but  to  indicate  rela- 
tion. So,  do  means  to  acty  and  it  is  hence  used  to  strengthen  or  give 
emphasis  to  the  expression  of  another  act ;  as,  "  I  do  desire."  Have 
means  to  possess,  own,  etc.,  and  in  some  sense,  it  never  loses  this  force, 
even  as  an  "  auxiliary."     [See  discussion  of  the  auxiliaries,  329,  et  seqJl 

2.  The  meaninf/  and  force  of  connectives;  as — 

(1.)  Conjunctions. — And  means  added,  in  addition  to;  but, 
separation,  and  the  like. 

(2.)  Prepositions,  or  words  that  relate  by  expressing  a  limita- 
tion ;  as — "  The  book  is  on  the  table." — "  The  book  is  under  the 
table." — "  The  book  is  beside  the  table." — "  He  went  to  the  house, 
from  the  house,  iiito  the  house,"  etc. 

In  the  same  grammatical  structure,  the  force  of  the  phrase  de];)end8 
upon  the  tneaning  of  the  particles  on,  under,  beside,  etc. 

TT,  The  Nature  of  the  Sentence.  — Grammatical  distinc- 
tions, of  words  merely,  are  of  little  account,  save  as  they  lead  to  correct 
forms  of  speech  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  language. 


*  IKTROD  UCTION". 

1.  It  may  be  readily  sliown  by  simple  illustration— 
(1.)  Tha*  every  word  is  tke  sigi%  of  an  idea. 

(3.)  That  related  ideas  are  expressed  by  related  words, 

(3.)  That  &  judgment  of  the  mind  may  be  put  into  the  form  of  a 
proposUioUf  and  that  such  proposition  is  expressed  by  a  sen' 
tence. 

Every  sentence  consists  of  two  parts — (1.)  The  word  or  phrase  that 
names  the  subject  of  thought ;  (2.)  The  word  or  form  of  words  that 
uffirfns  or  tells  something  of  the  subject ;  and  this  is  a  universal  law 

After  a  clear  exemplification  of  this  by  a  sufficient  number  of  ex- 
amples, the  pupils  may  have  practical  exercises  in  framing  sentences — 
second  parts  for  given  first  parts  ;  and  first  parts  of  which  given  sec- 
ond parts  may  be  predicated. 

2.  It  will  be  found  of  interest,  not  only  as  leading  to  a  more  critical 
imderstanding  of  the  use  of  language,  but  as  a  preparation  for  the 
classification  of  verbs,  to  show  the  three  forms  of  sentences,  by 
the  nature  and  use  of  their  principal  verbs,  thus — 

{a.)  "  Horses  eat  grass." — (&,)  "  Birds  fly." — (c.)  •*'  Sugar  is  sweet." 

In  the  first  of  these,  the  fiieaning  of  the  affirming  verb  is  such 
that  the  act  can  not  be  done  without  involving  the  existence  of  some 
person  or  thing  as  receiving  it,    (590). 

In  the  second,  the  meaning  is  satisfied  by  naming  the  actor 
and  the  act. 

in  the  third,  the  chief  office  of  the  verb  is  to  connect  an  attri- 
hntCf  expressing  some  quality  or  circumstaiise  of  the  subject.  iSee 
Syntax,  Classification  of  Sentences. 

III,  The  relation  of  tvords  in  a  phrase  or  sentence  follows 
the  order  of  the  relation  of  the  ideas  which  they  express. 

1.  Words  may  be  united  without  any  sign;  as,  good  boy 
horse  runs. 

2.  In  a  few  instances  the  iii/Zec^iow^  is  the  sign  of  relation  t, 
as  children's  shoes. 

3.  When  words  have  no  natural  relation,  they  may  be  put  in  rela 
tion  by  another  word;  as,  "love  of  country,"  "grass  is  green," 
*'  John  and  James  study,"  etc.  At  the  proper  time,  a  classification 
may  be  made  of  these  distinctions. 

IV,  It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind,  that,  in  order  to  the  intelli- 
gent study  of  Grammar,  whose  office  it  is  to  teach  "  to  speak  and 
write  correctly,"  pupils  must  be  constantly  exercised  in  this  practical 
use,  that  the  principles  which  the  Grammar  teaches  may  be  prac- 
tically exemplified,  and  power  be  gained  in  their  application. 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 


1.  Language  is  the  means  by  which  we  express 
our  thoughts. 

2.  G^ram^nar  treats  of  the  laws  of  language,  and 
the  right  method  of  using  it. 

Grammar  is  both  a  Science  and  an  Art. 

As  a  Science^  it  investigates  the  principles  of  lan- 
guage m  general :  as  an  Art^  it  teaches  the  right  method 
of  applying  these  principles  to  a  particular  language,  so 
as  thereby  to  express  our  thoughts  in  a  correct  and  proper 
manner,  according  to  established  usage. 

3.  English  Grammar  is  the  art  of  speaking  and 
writing  the  English  tanguage  with  propriety. 

4.  Language  is  either  spoken  or  written. 

5.  The  elements  of  spoken  language,  are  vocal  and 
articulate  sounds,     (25  and  26). 

{?.  The  elements  of  written  language  are  characters 
or  letters  which  represent  these  sounds. 

7.  Letters  are  formed  into  syllables  and  words :  words 
into  sentences ;  and  by  ihese,  properly  uttered  or  written, 
men  communicate  their  thoughts  to  one  another. 

8»  Grammar  is  divided  into  four  parts :  OrtJiog- 
rapTiy^  Etymology^  Syntax^  and  Prosody, 

9.  Orthograi^hy  treats  of  letters  and  syllables  ; 
Etymology 9  of  words  ;  Syntax,  of  sentences ; 
Prosody f  of  elocution  and  versification. 


4y  ;  /J  *-'•  ^•*^'.  *rf  fB  t  Gf  L  I&H    GRAMMAB 


PART    I. 
OBTHOG-KAPHr 


10,  Orthography  treats  of  letters,  and  of  the 
mode  of  combining  tliem  into  syllables  and  words.* 

11,  A.  Letter  is  a  mark,  or  character,  used  to  represent 
an  elementary  sound  of  the  human  voice. 

12,  There  are  Twenty-six  letters  in  tlie  Englisli  Alphabet. 

13,  Letters  are  either  Vowels  or  Consonants, 

14:,  A  Vowel  is  a  letter  wliich  represents  an  unobstructed  sound 
(25)  ;  and,  in  a  word  or  syllable,  may  be  sounded  alone.  Tlie  vowels 
are  a,  e,  if  o,  it,  and  tv  and  y  not  before  a  vowel  sounded  in  the 
Bame  syllable,  as  in  law,  hay, 

m,  K  Consonant  is  a  letter  which  represents  an  obstructed 
sound  (26)  ;  and,  in  a  word  or  syllable,  is  never  sounded  alone,  but 
always  in  connection  with  a  vowel.  The  consonants  are  b,  c_,  d,  /, 
(/,  hf  J,  kf  If  nif  Qif  p,  </,  Vf  s,  tf  Vf  oc,f  z,  and  tv  and  y  before 
a  vowel  sounded  in  the  same  syllable,  as  in  war,  youth. 

[Properly  speaking,  w  and  y  are  >  ahvays  vowels,  and  represent 
respectively  the  sounds  of  oo  and  e,  as  w\b\i  (Go-ish),  yet  (c-et).  They 
are  sometimes  called  coales(xnts\ 

10,  A.  Diphthonf/  is  the  union  of  two  vowels  in  one  soimd,  as 
oi,  in  oil ;  ou,  in  found. 

1 7.  When  a  letter  in  a  word  is  not  used  in  pronunciation,  it  is 
called  a  Silent  letter,  as  h  in  Aour ;  a  in  bread  ;  e  in  mate. 


*  Orthography  is  properly  a  part  of  Grammar,  as  it  belongs  to 
"  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing  a  language  with  propriety,"  Yet 
as  the  whole  subject  is  treated  more  fully  in  the  spelling-book  and 
dictionary,  a  brief  synopsis  of  its  principles  only  is  here  given,  rather 
as  a  matter  of  form,  than  with  a  view  to  its  being  particularly  studied 
at  this  stage.  The  teacher  may  therefore,  if  he  thinks  proper,  pass 
over  Part  I.  for  the  present,  and  begin  with  Part  II. 


ORTHOGRAPHY  —  LETTERS,  5 

18,  A  union  of  two  vowels  in  the  same  syllable,  only  one  of  which 
is  sounded,  is  called  a  digraph,  and  sometimes,  an  improper  diph 
thong,  as  oa  in  boat ;  ou  in  court. 

19,  A.  Triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels  in  one  sound, 
as  eau  in  beauty .  ^ 

The  Powers  of  Letters. 

,   20,  In  analyzing  words  into  their  elementary  sounds,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  distinguish  between  the  tianie  of  a  letter  and  its  power. 

21,  The  na^ne  of  a  letter  is  that  by  which  it  is  usually 
called;  as  A,  be,  se,  de,  etc. 

22,  The  power  of  a  letter  is  the  effect  which  it  has, 
either  by  itself,  or  combined  with  other  letters,  in  forming 
a  word  or  syllable. 

23,  Each  of  the  vowels  has  several  powers.  Several  letters  have 
the  same  power ;  and  certain  powers  or  elements  of  words  are  re- 
presented by  a  combination  of  two  letters. 

24:,  The  elementary  powers  or  sounds  in  the  English  language  are 
tihoviX  forty -three,  and  are  primarily  divided  into  unobstructed 
sounds  or  Vocals,  represented  by  vowels  and  diphthongs ;  and 
obstructed  sounds  (Subvocals  and  Aspirates),  represented 
by  consonants,  single  or  combined. 

2i>,  Vocals  or  tonics  are  unobstructed  sounds  produced  by  the 
organs  of  voice,  with  the  mouth  more  or  less  open,  and  with  no 
change,  or  but  slight  change,  of  position  in  the  organs  of  speech, 

20,  Subvocals  or  subtonics  are  soimds  produced  by  the  organs  of 
voice,  obstructed  or  modified  by  certain  changes  in  the  position  of  the 
organs  of  speech. 

27 »  Aspirates  or  atonies  are  mere  whispering  sounds  without 
vocality,  but  which  still  have  an  audible  effect  in  the  enunciation  of 
words.     Tliey  are  all  obstructed  except  h, 

28,  The  elementary  powers  of  letters  can  not  be  exhibited  to  the 
eye,  but  must  be  learned  from  the  living  voice. 

20,  The  name  of  a  vowel  is  always  one  of  its  powers  (except  w 
and  y),  and  if  from  the  name  of  a  consonant,  we  take  away  the  voweJ 
Sound,  what  remains  is  generally  the  power  of  that  consonant. 

80,  A  full  view  of  the  elementary  powers  of  letters  in  the  format 


6 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR, 


tion  of  words,  is  exhibited  in  the  following  table.  In  the  words  aiv 
nexed  as  examples,  the  letter  whose  power  is  indicated  is  printed  in 
Italic.  By  pronouncing  the  word  distinctly,  and  then  leaving  out  all 
but  the  power  of  the  Italic  letter,  and  uttering  that  alone,  we  have 
the  power  of  that  letter. 

SI,  Elementary  Sounds  in  the  English  Language. 

Table  I. 


VOCALS. 

SUBVOCALS. 

ASPIRATES. 

A. 

«le,  able.* 

B. 

Iiat,  orl». 

F. 

fix. 

A. 

art. 

D. 

do,  did. 

H. 

liat. 

A. 

all. 

G. 

flfone,  doflf. 

K. 

leeep,  booJk. 

A. 

at. 

J. 

Judge. 

P. 

^en,  top. 

A. 

ask. 

L. 

lie. 

S. 

sun. 

E. 

me. 

M. 

wtan. 

T. 

fop,  bal. 

E. 

met,  egg. 

N. 

no. 

Th. 

fai#^. 

I. 

ire. 

NG. 

Ting. 

Sh. 

show. 

I. 

in. 

R. 

far. 

Ch. 

chide. 

0. 

old. 

Rf 

rope. 

Wh 

•t    tchen. 

0. 

move,  ooze. 

Th. 

f/*is. 

0. 

odd. 

V. 

f?an. 

U. 

ticne,  use. 

z. 

^inc. 

U. 

•Mp. 

z. 

a^ure.  - 

U. 

fMll. 

Oi. 

oil. 

On. 

thotf. 

W. 

tre. 

Y. 

yes. 

The  following  analysis  exhibits  the  nature  of  the  different  sounds : 
1.  Classified  by  the  ear;  2d.  By  the  position  of  the  organs  in  forming 
them. 


*  Some  make  a  in  care  a  distinct  element.  It  is  only  long  a  modi- 
fied by  the  r  following. 

f  R  before  a  vowel  has  a  hard  or  trilling  sound ;  as,  rat,  rough ; 
after  a  vowel,  a  soft  and  liquid  sound ;  as,  arm,  far. 

X  Wh  is  a  combined  sound,  nearly  equivalent  to  h-oo,  and  is  classed 
here  only  for  convenience. 


ORTHOGRAPHY  —  LETTERS. 


1.  There  are  two  general  classes,  unobstructed  and  obstructed 

Bounda 


fOO 

1: 

in  mood. 

a 

in  late. 

'Long,    . 

in  go. 

ah 

in  father. 

in  me. 

atv  in  fall. 

Medial,.    . 

■a 

in  grass. 

e 

in  her. 

% 

'Simple,  .    .    .- 

Short,    .    . 

coo 

Y 

in  book, 
in  tin. 

a 

mfat. 
in  tub. 

TJnobstruct 
Sennas  are 

Coalescent, 
Wliispered, 

(e 
h 

in  met. 
in  wish, 
in  hat. 

o 

y 

in  not. 
in  yet. 

1 

Sehtat.,  , 

(Open,     .    . 
<  Close,    ,    . 

ou  in  out. 

U     in  tube. 

oi 
i 

in  oil. 
in  fine. 

■s 

EXPLODENT,      A 

'Mutes,  .    . 

P 

in  pin. 
in  time. 

ch 
k 

in  church, 
in  king. 

stracted  Sonn 
are 

-Sonants, 
'EQsses,  . 

id 

(th 

in  bad,  tub 
in  do. 

in  fan,  life, 
in  think. 

J 

9 

8 

8h 

injoj. 
in  go. 

in  sin. 
in  show. 

o 

Buzzes,  .     . 

I 

in  vine. 

X 

in  zone. 

i 

Continuant,   .- 

Liquids, 

in  the. 
in  lifo. 

xU 
r 

in  azure, 
in  far. 

Trill,     .    . 

r 

in  rich.  . 

-Nasals,  .    . 

m 

in  man. 

tig 

m  sing. 

( n     m  no. 

2.  The  organs  chiefly  employed  in  the  formation   of  soimds  are 

the  lips,  tongue,  teeth,  gums,  palate,  and  throat.     It  is  imjwssiblo  x>er- 

fcctly  to  separate  the  functions  of  these  organs,  but  an  approximate 

reference  of  the  sounds  is  made  in  the  table  subjoined. 

I        Remakk. — The  ordinary  distribution  of  long  and  short  vowels  in 

f     English  is  arbitrary ;  for  it  must  bo  noticed  that  short  i  is  not  th« 


8 


EI^GLISH    GEAMMAR. 


short  sound  of  long  i,  but  rather  of  long  e.  The  corresponding  lon^w 
and  short  sounds  are  those  made  with  the  organs  in  the  same  posi 
tions,  as  indicated  in  Table  II. 

Table  II. 
Phonetic  Classification, 


H'       O     CJ     3 

k)      ^   H  O 


g 


c3 

I 
a 

CD 

w 


UNOBSTRUCTED 


Simple 


LSetiial 


Long 

Medial  .    . 
Short     .    .  oo 
Coalescent.  ^v 
Whispered 

j  Open      .    . 

(Close     .    . 


.  oo  o  €  a  ah  a-m 
e       a 
i  €  a  u  o 

y 

h 
au  oi 


fExPLOD-  (Mutes    . 
ENT    .  ( Sonants . 


I  OBSTRUCTED 


Contin- 
uant 


Hisses  . 
Buzzes  . 
Liquids . 
Trill.  . 
^Nasals   . 


p    t  ch 
b  a  J 

.  fthssh 
vth  xzh 
I 


r 
m        ti     tig 

32.  Certain  letters  in  the  English  Alphabet  have  no  power  of 
their  own,  but  represent  the  sound  of  others  in  the  preceding  table, 
aud  may  therefore  be  called  Equivaletits,  Equivalents  of  vowels 
and  diphthongs  are  nimierous. 

33.  Of  the  Subvocals  and  Aspirates,  eight  pairs  are  Correla^ 
tives.    In  soimding  the  first  of  any  of  these  pairs,  the  organs  of  voice* 


*  The  Organs  of  Voice  are  those  parts  (called  by  physiologists 
the  larynx  and  its  appendages)  which  are  employed  in  the  produc- 
tion of  simple  vocal  sounds. 

The  Organs  of  Speech  are  those  parts  employed  to  obstruct  or 
modify  whispering  or  vocal  sounds.  These  are  the  tongue,  lips, 
t«eth,  gums,  palate,  and  throat. 


ORTHOGRAPHY  —  SYLLABLES.  9 

and  speech  are  in  the  same  position  as  in  sounding-  its  fellow,  but 
the  first,  or  subvocal,  has  vocality  ;  the  second,  or  aspirate,  has  not. 
34,  Equivalents  and  Correlatives* 

Table  III. 


EQUIVAT,KNTS. 

CORRELATIVES. 

Subvocals. 

Aspirates, 

W         =u    cmo,  mew. 

V. 

vow. 

F.      fame. 

Y           =i     tyrant,  system. 

G. 

gone. 

K.      keep. 

Chard  =k    cat. 

B. 

bat. 

P.       pen. 

Q           =k    liguor. 

Z. 

zinc 

S.       sin. 

C  soft    =s     cent. 

D. 

do. 

T.      top. 

G  soft    =j     gin. 

Th. 

this. 

Th.    thick. 

X           =k8  fia;. 

Z. 

azure. 

Sh.     show. 

J. 

judge. 

Ch.    chide. 

3o.  The  elementary  sounds  of  the  human  voice,  some- 
times simple,  but  more  commonly  combined,  are  formed 
into  Syllables  and  Words, 


Syllables. 

36.  A  Syllable  is  represented,  in  written  lan- 
guage, Iby  a  letter  or  combination  of  letters  nttered 
by  one  impulse  of  the  voice,  as  farm^  farm-er, 
ea-gle^  a-e-ri-al, 

37*  Every  word  contains  as  many  sjllahles  as  It  has  distinct  vocal 
soimds,  as  gram-ma-ri-an. 

38,  A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  Monosyllable, 

39,  A  word  of  two  syllables  is  called  a  Dissyllable, 

40,  A  word  of  three  syllables  is  called  a  Trisyllable, 

41,  A  word  of  more  than  three  syllables  is  called  a  Polysyl- 
lable, 


10  ENGLISH     GEAMMAE. 


^  42.  The  division  of  words  into  sjUal^les  is  called 


Division  of  Words  into  Syllables, 

le  divis 
Syllabication. 

GENERAL   RULE. 

43.  Place  togetlier  in  distinct  syllables,  those  letters  wliicb.  make 
up  the  separate  parts  or  divisions  of  a  word,  as  heard  in  its  correct 
pronunciation. 

4:4:,  The  only  definite  rules  of  much  value  on  this  subject  are  the 
following : — 

45.  Rule  1.  Two  or  more  consonants  forming  but  one  elementary 
sound,  are  never  separated ;  such  as,  ch,  tch,  th,  sh,  ng,  ph,  wh,  gh, 
silent,  or  soundiiig/,  Ik  sounding  k,  etc.  ;  as,  churcJi^cs,  watch-es,  wor- 
thy, fis7i-es,  sing-ing,  philoso-phy,  eigh-ing,  cough-in g,  walk-ing. 

4G»  Bute  2.  The  terminations,  cean,  dan,  ceous,  cious,  cial,  Hon, 
tious,  Hal,  geon,  gian,  geous,  sion,  are  hardly  ever  divided  ;  as  o-cean, 
gra-cious,  na-tion,  coura-geous,  etc, 

47*  Ruled.  Compound  words  are  divided  into  their  simple  ones  ; 
las,  rail-road,  'bee-hive,  hope-less,  thank-ful,  etc. 

48,  Rule  4.  The  terminations  of  words,  when  they  form  a  sylla- 
ble, are  usually  separated  from  their  roots ;  as  writ-er,  teach-es, 
think-ing,  cold-er,  old-est. 

49,  Two  separate  words  combined  as  one  name,  are  usilally  sepa- 
rated by  a  hyphen  ;  as,  glass-house,  hee-hive. 

To  this  rule,  according  to  modern  usage,  there  are  some  exceptions. 

50,  In  writing,  a  word  of  more  than  one  syllable  may  be  divided 
at  the  end  of  a  line,  but  a  monosyllable  or  a  syllable,  never. 


_^  Spelling. 

51.  Spelling  is  the  art  of  expressing  a  word  by 
its  proper  letters. 

52.  The  Orthography  of  the  English  language  is  so  anomalous, 
and  in  many  cases  arbitrary,  that  proficiency  in  it  can  be  acquired 
only  by  practice,  and  the  use  of  the  spelling-book  or  dictionary.  The 
following  rules  are  of  a  general  character,  though  even  to  these  thero 
may  be  a  few  exceptions  : — 


ORTHOGRAPHY  —  SPELLING.  11 

General  Rules  for  Spelling  Words, 

RULE    I. 

^V^:^,  Monosyllables  ending  with  /,  l^  or  s,  preceded  by 
a  >ring"ttj  vowel,  double  the  final  consonant ;  as,  staff,  mill, 
pass. 

54,  Exceptions. — Of,  if,  as,  is,  lias,  was,  his,  gas,  yes,  this,  us,  thus, 
pus. 

RULE    II. 

^^.  Words  ending  with  any  consonant  except  /,  l^  or 
8,  do  not  double  the  final  letter ;  as,  sit,  not,  up,  put, 
ihat,  in. 

56,  Exceptions. — Add,  bunn,  butt,  buzz,  ebb,  egg,  err,  inn,  odd, 
purr. 

RULE    III. 

d7» — 1.  Words  in  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
change  y  into  i  before  an  additional  letter  or  syllable  ;  as, 
spy,  spies ;  happy,  happier,  happiest ;  carry,  carrier,  car^ 
riecl ;  fancy,  fanciful, 

58.  Exception  1.  But  y  is  not  changed  before  ing ;  as,  deny^ 
denying. 

SO, — 2.  Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel,  retain 
the  y  unchanged ;  as,  boy,  boys,  boyish,  boyhood. 

Exception  3.  But  lay,  pay,  say,  make  laid,  paid,  said ;  and  day 
makes  daily. 

RULE    IV. 

GO,  Monosyllables  and  T\'ords  accented  on  the  last  sylla- 
ble, ending  with  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel,  double  that  consonant  before  an  additional  syllable 
beginning  with  a  vowel ;  as,  rob,  robber  ;  admit,  admittance, 
admitted. 

Exception. — But  a?  and  h  are  never  doubled. 

Ql,  But  when  a  diphthong  or  a  double  vowel  precedes, 
or  the  accent  is  not  on  the  last  syllable,  the  consonant  ia 


l3  El^GLISH    GRAMMAR. 

not  doubled ;  as  toil,  hoiling,  boiler ;  wool,  zvoolen ;  fool, 
foolish  ;  visit,  visited. 

62»  Exceptions. — In  about  fifty  words  ending  in  I  witli  a  vowel 
before  it,  and  not  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  many  writers,  con- 
trary to  analogy  and  without  necessity,  double  the  I  improperly 
before  an  additional  syllable.  These  are  such  words  as  travel,  trav- 
eller, travelling,  travelled.* 

03.  So  also  s  and  p  are  generally,  though  improperly,  doubled  in 
Mas,  worship,  and  kidnap;  as  Massing,  icorshipper,  kidnapping. 
Webster,  and  many  writers  following  him,  in  these  words  conform  to 
the  general  rule. 

EULE   V. 

04,  Silent  e  is  preseired  before  the  terminations,  mentf 
lesSf  ly^  andful;  sl^,  paleness,  peaceful,  abatement,  etc. 

65.  Exceptions.  Duly,  truly,  awful,  and,  generally,  judgment,  ac 
knowledgment,  lodgment,  abridgment,  are  excepted.  Argument, 
from  the  Latin  argumentum,  is  not  an  exception. 

RULE    VI. 

do.  Silent  e  is  omitted  before  terminations  beginning 
with  a  vowel ;  as,  slave,  slavish  ;  cure,  curable  ;  sense,  sen- 
sible ;  lodge,  lodging ;  love,  lovest. 

67*  Blame,  move,  reprove,  sale,  and  their  compounds,  sometimes, 
though  improperly,  retain  e  before  able  ;  as,  UameaUe,  etc. 

08,  But  words  ending  in  ge  and  ce  retain  e  before  able,  in  order 
to  preserve  the  soft  sound  of  g  and  c ;  as,  changeahle,  peaceable^  etc. 
For  the  same  reason  we  have  singeing  and  swingeing :  dye  has  di/eing, 
to  distinguish  it  from  dying.  So  also  words  ending  with  c  hard  in- 
sert Jc  before  a  syllable  beginning  with  e  or  i  to  preserve  the  hard 
sound ;  as,  frolic,  frolicked,  frolicking. 


*  The  words  referred  to  are  the  following  :  Apparel,  bevel,  bowel, 
cancel,  carol,  cavil,  channel,  chisel,  counsel,  cudgel,  dishevel,  drivel, 
duel,  embowel,  enamel,  empanel,  equal,  gambol;  gravel,  grovel, 
handsel,  hatchel,  imperil,  jewel,  kennel,  label,  level,  libel,  marshal, 
marvel,  model,  panel,  parcel,  pencil,  peril,  pistol,  pommel,  quarrel, 
ravel,  revel,  rival,  rowel,  shovel,  shrivel,  snivel,  tassel,  trammel,  travel, 
tunnel,  unravel. 


OBTHOGRAPHY  —  SPELLING.  13 

69,  The  letters  ie  at  the  end  of  a  word,  are  clianged  into  y  before 
ing  ;  as,  die,  dying  ;  lie,  lying. 

BULE    yii. 

70.  Words  ending  with  double  I  drop  one  I  before  the 
terminations  less  and  ly^  to  prevent  trebling ;  as,  sMll- 
shilless  ;  full,  fully  ;  and  some  writers  before  ness  and  ful ; 
as,  fulness^  skilful. 

71*  But  words  ending  in  any  other  double  letter  pre- 
serve the  letter  double  before  less^  ly^  fiess,  and  full ; 
as,  harmlessly y  stiffly,  gruffness,  etc. 

RULE     VIII. 

72,  Simple  words  ending  in  double  ?,  when  joined  to 
other  words,  generally  drop  one  I  when  they  lose  the  ac- 
cent ;  as,  awful,  hopeful,  handful,  careful,  already, 

73,  But  when  they  are  under  the  accent,  the  double  I 
should  be  retained;  as,  fulfill,  willful,  recall,  foretell.  But, 
U7itil,  welcome,  always,  also,  withal,  therewithal,  wherewithal, 
have  single  I. 

74,  In  words  under  this  rule,  however,  usage  is  far  from  uniform 
fulfU  and  fulfill ;  willfal  and  wilful ;  recal  and  recall ;  foretel  and 
foretell,  and  similar  varieties  are  common. 

75,  Other  compounded  words  are  generally  spelled  in  the  samf 
manner  as  the  simple  words  of  which  they  are  formed  ;  as,  glass-house, 
millwright,  thereby. 

76,  Many  words  in  English  admit  of  two  or  more  different  modes 
of  spelling ;  as,  connection,  connexion  ;  enquire,  inquire  ;  chemistry, 
chymistry ;  etc.  In  such  cases,  prevailing  usage  and  analogy  must 
be  our  guides. 

The  orthography  of  'primitive  words  of  Saxon  origin — the  root 
words  of  our  language — can  be  learned  only  from  the  spelling-book  or 
dictionary  ;  yet  even  in  regard  to  them,  there  are  certain  modes  of 
classification  by  which  the  intelligent  teacher  will  much  facilitate 
their  mastery  by  the  pupiL 


U  Ei^GLISH    GRAMMA.Il. 

Capital  Letters. 

77»  The  letters  commonly  used  in  printing  are  distin- 
guished and  represented  as  follows : — 

(1.)  CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

(2.)  Small  Capitals. 

(3.)  Italic  letters. 

(4.)  Lowercase  (small  letters). 

Formerly,  every  noun  began  with  a  capital  letter, 
both  in  writing  and  in  printing ;  and  in  the  German  lan- 
guage this  usage  is  still  retained  :  but  at  present,  only  the 
following  words  begin  with  capital  letters  : — 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter,  note,  or 
any  other  piece  of  writing. 

2.  The  first  word  after  a  period;  also,  after  a  mark  of 
interrogation  or  exclamation,  when  the  sentence  before, 
and  the  one  after  it,  are  independent  of  each  other.  (585). 

But  if  several  interrogatory  or  exclamatory  sentences  are  so  con- 
nected, that  tlie  latter  sentences  depend  on  tlie  former,  all  of  them, 
except  the  first,  may  begin  with  a  small  letter  "Hovr  doth  the  city 
Kit  solitary  that  was  full  of  people !  how  are  her  habitations  become  as 
desolate  1  how  is  she  become  as  a  widow !   (589). 

3.  Proper  names,  titles  of  office  or  honor;  as,  George 
Wasliington,  General  Jackson^  Judge  Story,  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
America,  the  Ohio,  Sheldon  S  Co.,  New  Yorlc. 

Also,  when  the  title  is  used  without  the  proper  name,  it  is  custom- 
ary to  use  the  capital ;  as,  "  O  King,  live  forever !"  But  when  such 
words  are  used  as  common  nouns,  or  adjectives,  they  commence  with 
small  letters .:  as,  "  The  king,  and  the  lords,  and  the  people." 

Names  of  the  months,  and  of  the  days  of  the  week,  etc.,  begin  with 
capitals.  East,  West,  South,  etc.,  when  used  to  denote  a  district  of 
country,  or  its  people,  commence  with  capitals ;  as,  "  The  West  is  rap- 
idly increasing  in  population ;"  but  when  used  to  indicate  direc- 
tion, they  commence  with  a  small  letter  ;  as,  "  Buffalo  is  west  from 
Albany." 


OETHOGKAPHT — CAPITALS.  15 

The  words  river,  lake,  bay,  etc.,  used  as  common  nouns,  commence 
with  small  letters  ;  as,  "  There  are  many  beautiful  lakes  and  navigable 
rivers,"  etc.,  but  when  joined  with  a  proper  name,  designating  an  in- 
dividual, a  capital  is  generally  used  ;  as,  "  The  Ohio  River,  Great  Salt 
Liake,"  etc. 

4.  The  pronoun  I^  and  the  interjection  O,  are  written 
in  capitals. 

5.  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry ;  as — 

"  Hark !  how  the  sacred  calm  that  breathes  around 
Bids  every  fierce,  tumultuous  passion  ceiase ; 
In  still,  small  accents  whispering  from  the  ground, 
A  grateful  earnest  of  eternal  peace." 

6.  The  appellations  of  the  Deity ;  as,  God,  Most  Highy 
he  Almighty y  the  Supreme  Being,  etc. ;  also,  the  personal 
pronouns  thou  and  he,  when  standing  for  his  name ;  as, 
"  Praise  Him,  all  ye  people !"  But  when  such  words  are 
used  in  a  general  sense,  they  commence  with  small  letters, 
as,  "  The  proyidence  of  God  is  over  lords  and  peasants." 
"  The  gods  of  the  heathen  bow  before  our  God." 

7.  Adjectives  derived  from  the  proper  names  of  places ; 
as,  Grecian,  Roman,  English,  etc. 

8.  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation  (1123),  when  the 
quotation  would  form  a  complete  sentence  by  itself;  as, 
"  Always  remember  this  ancient  maxim :  *  Know  thyself/  " 

When  a  quotation  is  not  introduced  in  the  direct  form  (1124),  but 
follows  a  comma,  the  first  word  must  not  begin  with  a  capital ;  as, 
"  Solomon  observes  that  'pj'ide  goeth  before  destruction.'  " 

7.  Common  nouns,  when  personified ;  as,  "  Come,  gentle 
Spring."  (1046,  1). 

10.  Every  substantive  and  principal  word  in  the  titles  of 
books ;  as,  "  Euclid's  Elements  of  Geometry  ;"  "  Goldsmith's 
Deserted  Village" 

11.  Historical  eras,  events,  extraordinary  physical  phe- 
nomena,  written  instruments,  and  generally,  all  worda 


16  EKGLISH    GRAMMAR, 

which  are  used  in  a  specialized  sense ;  as,  the  Iron  Age, 
Magna  Charta,  the  Polar  Sea,  Aurora  Borealis,  the  Day  of 
Judgment,  etc. 

78.  Otlier  words,  besides  tlie  preceding,  may  begin  with  capitals, 
wlien  they  are  remarkably  emphatic,  or  the  principal  subject  of  the 
composition. 

In  cases  where  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  the  proper  usage,  employ  a 
email  letter. 


Accent. 

In  the  pronnnciation  of  words  of  more  than  one  syllable, 
accent  is  the  superior /or c^  of  voice  upon  some  par- 
ticular syllable,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  others ;  as,  ten'- 
der,  suppress',  temperance,  indus'trious. 

The  place  of  the  accent  sometimes  serves  to  distinguish  words  of 
the  same  orthography ,  but  of  different  signification ;  as,  con' duct 
(behavior),  conduGt',  (to  lead) ;  db'ject  (an  end,  purpose),  object',  (to 
oppose) ;  gal'lant  (brave),  gallant'  (a  gay  or  fashionable  man). 

JDerivative  ivords  (84)  generally  take  the  accent 
upon  the  primitive  part  or  root;  as,  boy,  boy'ish.  But 
when  the  primitive  words  consist  of  several  syllables,  a 
prefix  or  suffix  has  often  the  effect  of  changing  the 
accent;  as,  chastise',  chas'tisement. 

Some  compounds  take  tivo  accents;  but  many  permanent 
compounds  have  only  one  ;  as,  mankind',  gen'tlemcn. 

^  Many  2>oly syllables  have  two  accents^  called 
primary  and  secondary ;  as,  dis"-com-pose',  cir"-cum-spec'- 
tion,  sig"-ni-fi-ca'-tion. 

MonosjfUahles,  as  separate  words,  have  no  distinction  of 
accent ;  but,  in  composition,  a  periodic  stress,  analogous  to  accent, 
designates  particular  words.  This  is  more  noticeable  in  poetry,  but  ig 
also  recognized  in  prose  ;  as,  "  And  it  came'  to  pass'."  This  distino 
Hon  is  called  rhythm  (1060). 


ETYMOLOGY  —  WORDS. 

PART   II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 


79.  Btymology  treats  of  the  different  sorts  of 
words,  their  various  modifications,  and  their  deri- 
vations. 


WORDS. 

80,  A  Word  is  an  articulate  sound  used  Iby  com- 
mon consent  as  the  sign  of  an  idea. 

81.  A  few  words  consist  of  vocal  or  vowel  sounds  only; 
as,  /,  ah,  moe,  oh,  owe,  eye,  etc. 

82.-1.  Words  in  respect  of  their  Formation^  are 
either  Primitive  or  Derivative,  Simple  or  Com- 
pound. 

83.  A  I*rhnitive  word  is  one  that  is  not  derived  from 
any  other  word  in  the  language ;  as,  hoy,  just,  father. 

84.  A  Derivative  word  is  one  that  is  derived  from 
some  other  word ;  as,  boyish,  pistice,  fatherly. 

Derivatives  are  usually  formed  either  by  prefixing  or  aflSxing  sylla- 
bles to  simple  words. 

8fj.  A  Simple  word  is  one  that  is  not  combined  with 
any  other  word ;  as,  man,  house,  city. 

86.  A  Compound  word  is  one  that  is  made  np  of 
two  or  more  simple  words ;  as,  manhood,  horseman. 

<S7.-2.  Words,  in  respect  of  Form,  are  either  in- 
flected or  uninflected. 

88.  An  Inflected  word  is  one  which  undergoes  cer- 


18  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

tain  changes  of  form  or  termination,  to  express  the  differ- 
ent relations  of  gender,  number,  person,  case ;  degree ; 
voice,  mood,  tense;  usually  termed  in  Grammar  Acci- 
dents ;  as,  man,  men  ;  wise,  wiser  ;  love,  loves,  loved,  etc. 
^  89,  In  tlio  changes  which  they  undergo,  nouns  and  pronouns  are 
sometimes  said  to  be  declined^  verbs,  to  be  conjugated,  adjec- 
tives and  adverbs,  comjiared  (140,  209, 473,  53G.) 

90.  An  uninflected  word  is  one  which  undergoes  no 
change  of  form ;  as,  and,  heside,  some,  perhaps. 
01.  3.    In  respect  of  signification  and  tise^ 

words  are  divided  into  different  classes,  called  Farts 
of  Speech. 

0  92.  The  principle  according  to  which  words  are  classi- 
fied is  their  use^  or  the  part  they  perform  in  the  expres- 
sion of  thought.  Words  which  are  names  of  objects  are 
classed  as  nouns  ;  those  which  qualify  nouns  are  adjec- 
tives ^  those  which  attribute  an  action  or  state  to  some 
subject  are  verbs,  etc.  Hence,  when  the  same  word  is 
used  for  different  purposes — at  one  time  as  a  name,  at  an- 
other to  qualify  a  noun,  and  at  another  to  express  an 
action  or  state — it  should,  in  parsing,  be  assigned  to  that 
class  of  words,  the  office  of  which  it  performs  for  the  time ; 
thus,  "  Before  honor  [noun]  is  humility."  "  Honor  [verb] 
thy  father  and  thy  mother." 


Structnre  of  Words. 

A  simple  word  conveying  a  single  notion,  or 

idea,  and  of  whose  origin  we  can  give  no  account,  is 
called  a  root. 

Derivatives  are  formed  from  these,  and  also  from 
foreign  roots. 

1.  By  changing  the  voivel,  or  modifying  the 
consonants  in  the  root.     Thus,  from  shake  we  have 


ETYMOLOGY  —  WORDS. 


19 


shock ;  from  strong,  strength ;  from  the  Latin  signum,  or 
French  signe,  we  have  sign, 

2.  By  prefixes  and  siijfixes^  added  to  the  root,  as, 
misguide,  w/iable,  withdiaw,  strengthe/i,  shocking,  reader, 
etc. 

Latin  roots  are  rarely  used  in  English  in  their  primitive  form. 
Thus,  in  permit,  submit,  the  root  is  mit ;  and  in  deport,  porter,  it  is 
port,  but  these  are  in  English  inseparable,  retaining,  however,  their 
original  signification,  and  imparting  it  to  the  derivative  ;  as  (Latin), 
port  to  carry,  er  (suffix)  one  who ;  porter,  a  carrier. 

A  prefix  is  a  letter  or  syllable  before  the  root  of  a 
derivative. 
A  suffix  i.g  a  letter  or  syllable  after  the  root. 

The  number  of  prefixes  and  suffixes  is  about  two  hundred,  and 
their  usual  signification  may  be  readily  learned.  It  is  estimated  that 
there  are  not  above  ten  thousand  roots.  The  mastery,  therefore,  of 
these  elements  will  put  the  learner  in  possession  of  more  than  one 
hundred  thousand  words,  given  in  our  standard  dictionaries ;  whilst 
the  exercise  of  verbal  analysis  is  invaluable,  in  leading  to  nice  dis- 
crimination in  shades  of  meaning. 

''  Prefixes, 

The  prefixes  are,  for  the  most  part,  of  Saxon 9 
Latinf  or  Greek  origin.  The  most  common  are  as 
follows : — 


Prefixes  of  Saxon  Origin, 


Be 

For 

Fore 

Mid 

Mis 

N{ne) 

Over 

Out 

Tin 

To 


in,  on,  at ; 

as, 

abed,  aboard. 

adding  intensity ; 

as. 

bespeak. 

the  contrary ; 

as. 

forbear,  forget. 

before ; 

as. 

foretell,  forewarn. 

middle ; 

as. 

midway. 

failure ; 

as. 

mistake. 

not; 

as, 

never. 

above ; 

as, 

overlay. 

excelling ; 

as. 

outrun. 

not; 

as, 

unkind,  unjust 

this; 

as, 

to-day,  to-morrow. 

I 


20 


EiTGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


With       signifying  against  ; 
Under         "  beneath ; 

U2>  "  ui:)wards ; 


as,    withhold,  withstand. 
as,     underlay,  undervalua 
as,     uplift,  upstart. 


Latin  Prefixes, 

A,ab,abs  " 

from; 

as, 

avert,  abstract. 

Ad"^ 

to; 

as, 

admit,  adhere. 

Atite\ 

before ; 

as. 

antecedent,  anticipate. 

Bene            " 

well; 

as, 

benevolent. 

Bis  {hi) 

two,  twice ; 

as. 

biped,  bisect. 

Circiun       " 

around ; 

as. 

circumference. 

Cont  ^ 

with,  together ; 

as. 

connect,  consent. 

Contra 

against ; 

as. 

contradict. 

Be 

down  ; 

as. 

descend,  degrade. 

Bis  (di) 

apart; 

as. 

disperse,  diverge. 

E,  ex,  ef     " 

out  (from) ; 

as, 

eject,  expel,  efiect. 

Bqui 

equally ; 

as. 

equilateral. 

Extra 

beyond ; 

as. 

extraordinary 

J/i(withv'b)" 

in  or  into ; 

as, 

include. 

B\{''  adjec.)" 

not ; 

as. 

indecent. 

Inter 

between ; 

as. 

intersperse. 

Bitro 

within ; 

as. 

introduce. 

Non 

not  ; 

as, 

nonsense. 

Oh% 

against  or  in  way 

of;  as. 

obstruct,  oppose. 

Per 

through ; 

as, 

persecute. 

Post 

after ; 

as. 

postpone. 

Bre{pr(x)  " 

before ; 

as, 

prejudice. 

Breter 

beside,  past ; 

as. 

pretermit. 

Pro 

forth ; 

as, 

propel. 

Me 

back; 

as, 

remit. 

*  Ad  sometimes  changes  d  for  the  sake  of  euphony,  and  takes 
the  forms,  ac,  af,  ag,  al,  an,  up,  ar,  as,  at ;  as,  accede,  «/fects, 
aggressor,  aZlude,  arinex,  <7|jpend,  arrest,  assent,  «rtend. 

f  Antl  sometimes,  but  to  be  distinguished  from  the  Greek  anti, 
against. 

X  Con,  for  euphony,  takes  the  forms,  CO,  com,  col ;  as,  cohere, 
compel,  coZlect. 

§  For  euphony,  oc,  of,  op  ;  as,  occur,  o/fend,  ojjposite. 


ETYMOLOGY— 

PREFIXES.                        %\ 

Retro 

backward ; 

as,  • 

retrograde. 

Se 

apart; 

as, 

seduce. 

Sub* 

under; 

as. 

subject. 

Subter      « 

underneath ; 

as. 

subterfuge. 

Super 

over ; 

as. 

superfluous. 

Sur 

over; 

as. 

surcharge. 

Trans 

across ; 

as. 

transport.                     ^ 

TJlt^ra 

beyond ; 

as. 

ultramaiine. 

Greek  Prefixes. 

A  or  an  (d,  av)  signifying  not ; 

as. 

anarchy. 

Amphi  (a/Kpc) 

both ; 

as. 

amphibious. 

Ana  (ava) 

up; 

as, 

anagram. 

Auti  {avTi) 

"            against ; 

as, 

antichrist. 

Apo  {ano) 

"             from ; 

as. 

apostle. 

Arch  {apxo^) 

"            cliief; 

as. 

archbishop. 

Auto  (avTog) 

self; 

as, 

autobiography. 

Cata  (Kara) 

down  ; 

as. 

catastrophe. 

Via  (dm) 

through ; 

as, 

diameter. 

En  {ev) 

in; 

as. 

encourage. 

Epl  (eiri) 

upon  ; 

as. 

epigram. 

Ex  {e^) 

out  of; 

as. 

exodus. 

Eu  {tv) 

weU ; 

as. 

euphony. 

Henil  (vfic) 

half; 

as. 

hemisphere. 

Hetero  {cTepog) 

different ; 

as, 

heterogeneous. 

Hyper  {vnep) 

"            over ; 

as, 

hypercritical. 

Hypo  (vT^o) 

"            under ; 

as. 

hypothesis. 

Meta  (iiera) 

"            change ; 

as, 

metamorphose. 

Para  {Tvapa) 

"            beside ; 

as. 

paradox. 

I'erl  (TT-ept) 

"            around ; 

as, 

perimeter. 

Syn\  {ovf) 

with ; 

as. 

synthesis. 

These  prefixes 

have  other  meanings  in  composition ;  the 

particular  sense  can  be  determined  only  by  use 

!. 

Many  derivatives,  and  especially 

■  those  of 

'  foreign  roots,  are  used 

*  Euphonic  forms,  sue,  suf,  sur,  as  succor,  «w/fer,  «^rreptitioua. 
f  This  takes,  also,  for  euphony,  the  form,  syin,  syl  ;  as  sywpathy^ 
sy'logism. 


22  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

in  a  somewhat  tropical,  or  conventional  sense,  but  their  mean, 
ing  always  bears  a  relation  to  the  original  root. 

Some  derivatives  have  many  special  meanings,  according 
to  the  subject  to  which  they  refer,  and  their  relation  to  other  words 
in  composition. 

It  is  recommended  that  at  stated  times  the  pupil  be  required  to 
prepare  lists  of  words  under  each  of  these  prefixes,  and  that  the 
teacher  show  how  such  as  are  used  in  a  modified  sense  have  lost 
their  literal  meaning. 

For  an  additional  exercise,  some  native  or  foreign  root  may  be 
given,  which  will  combine  with  each  of  several  prefixes, — the  pupils 
to  form  a  list,  and  write  out  their  meanings. 

Suffixes, 

A  suffix  is  a  letter  or  syllable,  placed  after  d 
root,  or  x)rimitive,  to  modify  its  signification. 

The  sufiixes  are  so  numerous,  and  of  such  varied  form  and  mean- 
ing, that  they  are  more  appropriately  presented  in  separate  works  on 
the  "  Analysis  of  Words."  It  has  been  thought  desirable,  however, 
to  present  what  may  be  regarded  as  their  graniinatical  fea- 
tures in  the  structure  of  the  different  Farts  of  Speech  (98),  and 
the  discussion  has,  therefore,  been  removed  to  Appendix  I.,  which 
see. 


-/ 


PARSING-. 


93.  JParsing  is  the  art  of  resolving  a  sentence 
into  its  elements  or  parts  of  speech  (91.  3). 

I     94,  Parsing  is  distinguished  into  etymolofjical  and 
syntactical,  (575). 

95,  A  word  is  parsed  etyinologically  by  stating 
the  class  of  words  to  which  it  belongs,  with  its  accidents 
or  grammatical  properties.  (576). 


ETYMOLOGY  —  NOUNS.  23 

96.  A  word  is  parsed  Syntactically  by  stating,  in 
addition,  the  relation  in  which  it  stands  to  other  words, 
and  the  rules  according  to  which  they  are  combined  in 
phrases  and  sentences.  (983). 

07,  These  two,  tliougli  related,  are  perfectly  distinct;  and  in  tlia 
early  part  of  the  student's  course,  nothing  should  be  anticipated 
wliich  he  can  be  supposed  to  know  only  at  a  more  advanced  stage. 
Let  the  student  learn  one  tiling  at  a  time,  each  thing  thoroughly  in 
its  proper  order,  and  continue  to  combine  things  learned,  as  far  as  it 
can  he  done  tcithout  anticipating  what  is  future.  In  this  way  the  pro. 
cess  will  be  simple  and  easy ;  every  step  will  be  taken  in  the  light, 
and  when  completed,  the  result  will  be  satisfactory.  Besides,  the 
student  must  be  able  to  parse  etymologically  with  great  ease  and 
promptness,  before  he  can  with  any  advantage  begin  the  study  of 
syntax.  For  this  purpose  the  class  should  be  properly  drilled  on  the 
exercises  furnished  at  every  step  in  the  following  pages. 


PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

98.  The  I^arts  of  Speech  in  English  are  nine, 
viz.  :  Noun^  Pronoun^  Verb,  Article,  Adjective, 
Adverb,  Preposition,  Interjection,  and  Conjunction, 

99.  Of  these,  only  the  iVbz^Ti,  Pronoun,  and  Yerb^ 
and  some  Adjectives  and  Adverbs,  are  inflected. 


NOUNS. 

100.  A  ^oun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place, 
or  thing,  when  used  in  connection  with  other  words  -j 
as,  Jolin,  London,  booli.     Hence, 

The  names  of  persons,  2olaces,  or  things,  are  Nouns. 

101.  Nouns  are  of  two  kinds,  Proper  and  Com^ 
9non, 

102.  A  Proper  Worm  is  the  name  applied  to  aii 
individual  only ;  as,  John,  London,  America,  th^ 
Ohio, 


24  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

103»  A  Common  Wounis,  a  name  applied  to  al] 
tilings  of  the  same  sort ;  as,  man,  chair,  table,  book. 

104.  Kemaeks. — Proper  nouns  are  used  to  distinguish 
individuals  of  the  same  class  from  one  another.  Common 
nouns  distinguish  sorts  or  classes,  and  are  equally  applica- 
ble to  all  things  of  the  same  class.  Thus,  the  common 
noun,  boy,  is  equally  applicable  to  all  objects  of  that  class; 
but  the  proper  nouns,  John,  James,  Eobert,  etc.,  are  appH- 
cable  only  to  particular  mdividuals  of  a  class. 

Observations  on  Nouns, 

105,  V/hen  a  proper  noun  is  used  to  denote  a  whole 
class,  it  is  usually  reckoned  common,  and  generally  has  an 
article  before  it.  In  such  cases  the  noun  becomes  the  type 
of  a  class,  and  forms  a  kind  of  transition  between  the 
proper  and  the  common  noun ;  as,  "  The  twelve  Ccesars,^' 
"  He  is  the  Cicero  of  his  age,"  "  A  Daniel  come  to  judg- 
ment."   A  Campbell,  i.  e.  one  of  the  Campbells. 

lOa,  Common  nouns  become  proper  when  personified 
(1046,  1),  and  also  when  used  as  proper  names ;  as,  Hail, 
Liberty!  The  Parh, 

10  T.  Under  common  nouns  are  usually  ranked — 

1.  Class  names,  which  can  be  used  to  designate  any  sin- 

gle individual  of  the  class. 

2.  Collective  nouns,  or  nouns  of  multitude,  which  signify 

many  in  the  singular  number ;  as,  army,  people. 
.  3.  Names  of  materials. 

4.  Names  of  measures,  etc. 

5.  Abstract  nouns,  or  names  of  qualities.    An  abstract 

noun  is  the  name  of  an  attribute  which  the  mind 
conceives  apart,  or  abstracted  from,  its  object;  as, 
wJiiteness,  sleep,  luisdom,  etc. 
The  names  of  actions,  as  reading^  writing,  etc.,  are  some- 
times called  verbal  nouns. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  NOUNS 


25 


Class  nouns,  derived  from  other  nouns,  and  denoting  a 
small  one  of  the  kind;  as,  stream,  streamlet ;  Idll,  hUlock ; 
are  also  called  diniluutive  nouns. 


Table  of  Nouns, 


.  Proper •  .  ] 


2.  Common 


1.  Class  names 


as  Washington. 
a  Sampson. 
Book. 
Scholar. 
Army. 
Iron. 
Foot,  etc. 
Goodness. 
Flight. 
Sleep. 


Particulak  names  .    . 
In  transition  state    . 

j  Sensible 

V  Rational , 

2.  Collective  names  .    , 

3.  Names  of  materials  . 

4.  Names  of  measures,  etc. 

{1.  Names  of  qualities 
2.  Names  of  actions 
3.  Names  of  states  . 

108.  To  the  class  of  nouns  belongs  ever3i;Mng,  whether  word, 
letter,  mark,  or  character,  of  which  we  can  tliink,  speak,  or  write,  re- 
garded merely  as  an  object  of  tliought,  even  when,  as  sometimes  hap- 
pens, we  do  not  give  it  a  name.  Thus  when  we  say,  "  Good  "  is  an 
adjective,  a  is  a  vowel,  6  is  a  consonant,  ^  is  a  capital,  4  is  an  even 
number,  ^  is  a  fraction,  ?  is  a  mark  of  interrogation,  +  is  the  sign  of 
addition,  —  of  subtraction,  =  of  equality — Oood,  a,  b,  A,  4,  i,  ?,  -f> 
— ,  =,  are  all  to  be  regarded  as  nouns. 

109,  Remark. — A  noun  is  also  called  a  substantive.  But  this 
term  for  convenience  is  here  used  in  a  more  comprehensive  sense,  to 
mean  a  noun,  a  personal  pronoun,  or  a  plirase,  or  seri- 
fence  used  as  a  noun.  Thus  in  such  a  rule  as  this,  "An  adjective 
qualifies  the  substantive,"  etc.,  the  word  substantive  may  n»ean 
either  a  noun,  pronoun,  substantive  phrase,  or  substantive  sentence. 

EXERCISES.* 
1.  In  the  following  list,  distinguish  proper  nouns  from  com~ 
nion,  and  give  a  reason  for  the  distinction : — 


*  The  exercises  furnished  here,  and  throughout  this  work,  are  in- 
tended merely  as  a  specimen  of  the  way  in  which  the  leading  truths 
and  facts  in  Grammar  may  be  wrought  into  the  minds  of  pupils,  by 
means  of  exercises  properly  devised.    It  is  not,  however,  expected  or 

2 


26  ENGLISH    GEAMMAR. 

Albany,  city,  tree,  nation,  France,  Philip,  dog,  horse, 
house,  garden,  Dublin,  Edinburgh,  London,  river,  Hudson, 
Ohio,  Thames,  countries,  America,  England,  Ireland,  Spain, 
sun,  moon,  stars,  planets,  Jupiter,  Venus,  Mars,  man,  wo- 
man, boy,  girl,  John,  James,  Mary,  Susan,  mountain,  stream, 
yalley. 

2.  In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  nouns.  Say  why 
they  are  nouns ;  tell  whether  they  are  proper  or  common,  and  why. 
Thus :  "  Table"  a  noun,  because  the  name  of  a  thing ;  common,  bo 
cause  applied  to  all  tilings  of  the  same  sort. 

[In  subsequent  exercises,  the  pupil  may  designate  more  particu' 
larly  the  sub-classes  to  which  the  nouns  belong : — ] 

The  table  and  chairs  in  this  room  belong  to  John ;  the 
book-case,  writing-desk,  and  books,  to  his  brother. — Time 
and  tide  wait  for  no  man. — The  largest  city  in  Europe  is 
London;  in  America,  New  York.-=— The  northern  states 
produce  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  corn,  and  potatoes ;  while 
cotton,  tobacco,  rice,  and  sugar,  are  the  products  of  the 
south. 

3.  Write  down  ten  nouns,  or  names  of  persons  or  things,  and  say 
something  respecting  each,  so  as  to  make  a  sentence ;  thus : — 

Summer. — Summer  is  the  warmest  season  of  the  year. 

4.  Tell  what  words  in  the  sentences  so  made  are  nouns,  and  why ; 
which  are  proper,  or  common,  and  why. 


Accidents  of  the  Noun, 

110,  The  accidents  of  nouns  are  I*erson^  Gen- 
det'f  Number f  and  Case. 


A 


desired  that  the  teacher  should  limit  himself  to  these.  Every  activQ 
and  ingenious  teacher  ^vill  de^dse  such  new  and  various  methods  ot 
exercising  his  pupils  as  their  age,  capacity,  and  circumstances,  and 
his  own  judgment  and  experience  may  suggest,  as  best  calculated  to 
draw  out  their  powers,  and  cultivate  in  them  a  habit  of  thinking  and 
reasoning  for  theiy  selves. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  NOUNS  —  PERSON.  27 

Note. — These  accidents  belong  also  to  personal  and  rela- 
tive pronouns  (239). 


Person. 

111,  Per  son  f  in  Grammar,  is  the  distinction  ol 
nouns  to  denote  the  speaker,  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  to,  or  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of.  (120). 
Hence, 

112,  There  are  three  persons,  called  First,  Second, 
and  Tliird. 

113,  A  noun  is  in  the  first  person,  when  it  denotes 
the  speaker ;  as,  "  I,  Paul,  have  written  it." 

114,  A  noun  is  in  the  second  person,  when  it  denotes 
the  person  or  thing  addressed;  as,  "Thou,  God,  seest 
me."—"  Hail,  Liberty !" 

lis,  A  noun  is  in  the  third  person,  when  it  denotes 
the  person  or  thing  spoken  of;  as,  "  Washington  was 
brave." — "  Truth  is  mighty." 

lid.  Remark. — The  third  person  is  used  sometimes  for  the  j?r5^/ 
as,  "  Thy  «er»rt7i?  became  surety  for  the  lad  to  my  father."  Gen.  xliv. 
33.  Sometimes,  particularly  in  the  language  of  supplication,  it  is 
used  for  the  second  ;  as,  "  O  let  not  the  Lord  be  angry."  Gen.  xviii. 
80.    "  Will  the  Lord  bless  us  1 " 

Observjations  on  Person, 

117,  The  first  and  the  second  person  can  belong  only  to  nouns 
denoting  persons,  or  things  personified ;  because  persons  only  can 
speak  or  be  spoken  to.  The  third  person  may  belong  to  all  nouns, 
because  every  object,  whether  person  or  thing,  may  be  spoken  of. 

118.  A.  noun  can  be  the  subject  of  a  verb  (G^O),  only  in  the  tbird 
person.  A  noun  in  the  first  or  second  person  is  never  used  as  the 
subject  of  a  verb,  but  only  in  apposition  (608)  \vith  the  first  or  second 
personal  pronoun,  for  the  sake  of  explanation  or  emphasis ;  and 
sometimes  in  the  second  jierson,  without  a  pronoun,  as  the  object 
jjddressed. 


28  EKGLISHGRAMMAB. 

110*  A  noun  in  the  predicate  (629),  is  generally,  thougli  not 
always,  in  the  third  person,  even  when  the  subject  is  in  the  first  ol 
second  ,  as,  "I  am  Alpha,^'  etc.,  "  who  is."  So  with  the  pronouns  1 
and  thou  ;■  as,  "  I  am  hef    "  Thou  art  the  man." 

120,  Remark. — Person  makes  no  change  either  in  the  meaning 
or  form  of  a  noun,  but  simply  denotes  the  manner  in  which  it  is  used, 
as  above  stated.  Moreover,  as  the  name  of  the  speaker,  or  of  the 
person  spoken  to,  is  seldom  expressed  (the  pronouns  I  and  tliou,  we 
and  you,  being  used  in  their  stead),  it  seems  to  be  a  useless  waste  of 
time,  in  parsing,  to  mention  the  person  of  a  noun,  unless  it  be  in  the 
first  or  second  person,  which  will  not  happen  more  than  once  in  a 
thousand  times.  Much  time  therefore  will  be  saved,  and  no  loss  sus- 
tained, if  it  be  considered  as  taken  for  granted,  without  stating  it,  that 
a  noun  is  in  the  third  person,  unless  it  be  otherwise  mentioned. 


Grender. 

121.  Gender  is  the  distinction  of  nouns  with 
regard  to  sex.     Appendix  II. 

122.  There  are  three  genders,  Masculine,  Fem^ 
ininef  and  Neuter. 

123.  l^^ouns  denoting  males  are  ilffascw7me;  as, 
man^  boy. 

124.  Nouns  denoting  females  are  Feminine;  as, 
woman,  girl. 

12 5.  Nouns  denoting  neither  males  nor  females, 
i.  e.,  things  without  sex,  are  Neuter;  as,  house, 
booJc,  tree. 

120.  Nouns  which  denote  either  males  or  females,  such 
as  parent,  neiglihor,  friend,  etc.,  are  sometimes,  for  the  sake 
of  convenience,  said  to  be  of  the  Common  Gender^ 
i.  e.,  either  masculine  or  feminine. 

127*  There  are  three  ways  of  distinguishing  the  sexes. 


ETYMOLOGY— 

KOUNS  — GEKDEB. 

1,    By  Different    Words; 

as, 

Mageuline. 

Feminine. 

Masculine. 

Feminine, 

Bachelor 

maid 

Horse 

mare 

Beau 

belle 

Husband 

wife 

Boy 

girl 

King 

queen 

Brother 

Bister 

Lord 

lady 

Buck 

doe 

Man 

woman 

Didl 

cow 

Master 

mistress 

Drake 

duck 

Nephew 

niece 

Earl 

countess 

Ram,  buck 

ewe 

Father 

mother 

Son 

daughter 

Friar 

nun 

Stag 

hind      . 

Gander 

goose 

Uncle 

aunt 

Hart 

xoe 

Wizard 

witch 

2.    By  a  IUfference  of  Termination;  as. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Mascvline. 

Feminine. 

Abbot 

abbess 

Arbiter 

arbitress 

Actor 

actress 

Author 

authoress 

Administrator 

administratrix 

Baron 

baroness 

Adulterer 

adulteress 

Bridegroom 

bride 

Ambassador 

ambassadress 

Benefactor 

benefactress 

Count 

countess 

Peer 

peeress 

Deacon 

deaconess 

Poet 

poetess 

Duke 

duchess 

Priest 

priestess 

Elector 

electress 

Prince 

princess 

Emperor 

empress 

Prior 

prioress 

Enchanter 

enchantress 

Prophet 

prophetess 

Executor 

executrix 

Protector 

protectress 

Governor 

governess 

Shepherd 

shepherdess 

Heir 

heiress 

Songster 

songstress 

Hero 

lieroine 

Sorcerer 

sorceress 

Hunter 

liuntress 

Sultan 

{  sultana,  or 
\         sultaness 

Host 

liostess 

Jew 

Jewess 

Tiger 

tigress 

Landgrave 

landgravine 

Traitor 

traitress 

Lion 

lioness 

Tutor 

tutoress 

^Marquis 

marchioness 

Viscount 

viscountess 

Mayor 

mayoress 

Votary 

votaress 

Patron 

patroness 

Widower 

widow 

2a 


30 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

3.    By  Brefixing  a  Distinguishing    Word; 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Sparrow. 

A  cock  sparrow. 

A  hen  sparrow. 

Goat. 

A  he  goat. 

A  she  goat. 

Servant. 

A  man  servant. 

A  maid  servant. 

Child. 

A  male  cliild. 

A  female  child. 

Descendants. 

Male  descendants. 

Female  descenda 

as. 


Observations  on   Gender, 

128,  Many  masculine  nouns  have  no  corresponding 
feminine ;  as,  haTcer,  hreiver,  etc. :  and  some  feminine  nouns 
have  no  corresponding  mascuhne;  as,  laundress,  seam- 
stress, etc. 

120,  Some  nouns  naturally  neuter,  are  often,  by  a  figure 
of  speech  (1046,  1),  converted  into  the  masculine  or  femi- 
nine; as,  when  we  say  of  the  sun,  "i/e  is  setting;"  of  the 
moon,  "  She  is  eclipsed  ;"  or  of  a  ship,  "  8he  sails." 

150,  Remahk. — This  inferior  species  of  personification,  peculiar 
to  the  English  language,  is  often  used  with  great  beauty  to  impart 
animation  and  liveliness  to  the^style,  without  rendering  it  inflated  or 
passionate.  No  certain  rule,  however,  can  he  given  as  to  the  gender 
assumed,  except  that  nouns  denoting  objects  distinguished  for 
strength  or  boldness,  are  usually  regarded  as  masculine,  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  those  denoting  objects  noted  for  softness,  beauty,  and 
gracefulness,  are  considered  feminine. 

151,  In  speaking  of  animals  whose  sex  is  not  known  to  us,  or 
not  regarded,  we  assign  the  masculine  gender  to  nouns  denoting  those 
distinguished  for  boldness,  fidelity,  generosity,  size,  strength,  etc,  as 
the  dog,  the  horse,  the  elephant.  Thus  we  say,  "  the  dog  is  remarka- 
bly various  in  his  species."  On  the  other  hand,  we  assign  the  femi- 
nine gender  to  animals  characterized  by  weakness  and  timidity ;  as 
the  hare,  the  cat,  etc. ;  thus,  "  The  cat,  as  she  beholds  the  light,  draws 
the  ball  of  her  eye  small  and  long," 

132.  In  speaking  of  animals,  particularly  those  of  inferior  size, 
we  fr^xjuently  consider  ihem  without  sex,  and  use  the  neuter  pronoun. 
Thus,  of  an  infant,  we  say,  "  It  is  a  lovely  creature ;"  of  a  cat,  "  It  la 
cruel  to  its  enemy. 

133,  When  the  male  and  female  are  expressed  by  distinct  terms, 


ETYMOLOGY  —  NOUI^S  —  GENDER.     31 

as,  shepherd,  shepherdess,  the  masculine  term  lias  sometimes  also  a 
general  meaning,  expressing  both  male  and  female,  and  is  always  to 
be  used  when  the  office,  occupation,  profession,  etc.,  and  not  the  sex 
of  the  individual,  is  chiefly  to  be  expressed.  Tlie  feminine  term  is 
used  only  when  the  discrimination  of  sex  is  necessary.  Thus,  when 
it  is  said,  "  the  Poets  of  this  country  are  distinguished  for  correctness 
of  taste,"  the  term  "  Poets"  clearly  includes  both  male  and  female 
writers  of  poetry.  But,  "  the  best  Poetess  of  the  age,"  would  be  saiil 
when  speaking  only  of  females. 

134:.  Collective  nouns,  when  the  reference  is  to  the  ag- 
gregate as  one  whole,  or  when  they  are  in  the  plural  num- 
ber, are  considered  as  neuter;  as,  "The  army  destroyed 
everything  in  its  course ;"  but  when  the  reference  is  to  the 
objects  composing  the  collection  as  individuals,  they  take 
the  gender  representing  the  sex  of  the  individuals  re- 
ferred to. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  What  is  the  feminine  o/— Father,  prince,  king,  master, 
actor,  emperor,  bridegroom,  stag,  buck,  hart,  nephew,  friar, 
priest,  heir,  hero,  Jew,  host,  hunter,  sultan,  executor,  horse, 
lord,  husband,  brother,  son,  bull,  he-goat,  etc.  ? 

2.  What  IS  the  masculine  of — Lady,  woman,  girl,  niece, 
nun,  aunt,  belle,  duchess,  abbess,  empress,  heroine,  wife, 
sister,  mother,  hind,  roe,  mare,  hen-sparrow,  shepherdess, 
daughter,  ewe,  goose,  queen,  songstress,  widow,  etc.  ? 

3.  TeU  of  what  gender  the  following  nouns  are,  and  why. 

Man,  horse,  tree,  field,  father,  house,  mother,  queen, 
count,  lady,  king,  prince,  castle,  tower,  river,  stone,  hen, 
goose,  seamstress,  mountain,  cloud,  air,  sky,  hand,  foot, 
head,  body,  limb,  lion,  tiger,  mayor,  countess; — friend, 
neighbor,  parent,  teacher,  assistant,  guide; — sun  (129), 
moon,  earth,  ship ; — cat  (132),  mouse,  fly,  bird,  elephant, 
hare. 

4.  Take  any  of  the  above  words,  and  say  something  respecting  the 
person  or  thing  which  it  denotes,  so  as  to  make  a  sentence ;  thus^ 
"  MyfatJier  is  at  home." 


82  ENGLISH    GKAMMAE. 


Number. 

135.  Nurtiber  is  tliat  property  of  a  nonn  "b^ 
wMcli  it  expresses  one,  or  more  tlian  one. 

136.  Nouns  have  two  numbers,  the  Singular  and 

the  JPlural.    The  singular  denotes  one ;  as,  hooli^ 
tree :  the  plural,  more  than  one ;  as,  hooJcs^  trees. 

GENEKAL  RULE. 

137.  The  plural  is  commonly  formed  by  adding 
8  to  the  singular ;  as,  hoolc^  hooks. 

SPECIAL  EULES. 

138.  EuLE  1. — ^Nouns  in  «,  sJi,  ell  soft,  ^,  oc^  or  o, 
form  the  plural  by  adding  es ;  as,  Miss,  Misses ;  hrush, 
trushes;  match,  matches;  topaz,  topazes;  fox,  foxes;  hero, 
heroes. 

130.  Exceptions. — Nouns  in  eo,  io,  and  yOy  have  s  only,  as, 
cameo,  cameos;  folio,  folios ;  embryo,  embryos.  So  also,  canto,  cantos. 
Junto,  tyro,  grotto,  portico,  solo,  halo,  quarto,  formerly  had  s  only 
in  the  plural ;  but  now  more  commonly  es  under  the  Rule ;  as,  junto, 
juntoes,  etc.  Nouns  in  ch  sounding  U,  add  s  only ;  as,  monarch, 
monarchs.     See  also  144. 

14:0.  Whenever  s  or  es  will  not  coalesce  with  the  final  syllable, 
it  adds  a  syllable  to  the  word ;  as,  age,  pi.  ages ;  box,  boxes.  But 
where  s  or  es  will  coalesce,  it  does  not  add  a  syllable ;  as,  book,  books  ; 
cargo,  cargoes.  The  s  will  make  an  additional  syllable  only  after  e 
final,  preceded  by  g  or  an  **-sound  ;  as,  cage,  cages  ;  race,  races  ;  rose, 
roses.  Es  will  coalesce,  and  so  not  add  a  syllable,  only  after  o ;  as, 
echo,  echoes. 

141.  EuLE  2. — ^ouns  in  y  after  a  consonant,  change 
2/  into  ies  in  the  plural ;  as,  lady,  ladies.    But 

Nouns  in  y  after  a  vowel,  and  all  proper  nouns  in  y,  fol- 
low the  general  rule  (137);  as,  day,  days;  the  Pompeys, 
the  Tullys,  etc. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  KOUNS  —  NUMBEE.  33 

142.  Rule  3. — ^Nouns  in  /  or  fe^  change  /  or  fe  into 
ves  in  the  plural;  as,  loaf,  loaves;  life,  lives, 

143*  Exceptions. — Dwarf,  scarf,  reef;  brief,  cliief,  grief;  kercliief, 
handkercliief,  iniscliief;  gulf,  turf,  surf;  safe,  fife,  strife;  proof,  hoof, 
reproof,  follow  the  general  rule.  Also  nouns  in  ff  have  their  plural 
in  .s  ;  as  muff,  muffs  ;  except  staff,  plural,  staves  ;  but  its  compounda 
are  regular;  as,  flagstaff)  flxigstaffs ;  wharf  has  either  wharfs  or 
wharoea. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Give  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns,  and  the  rule  for  forming 
it;  thus,  Fox,  plural, /oa-^s.  Rule — Nouns  in  «,  sh,  ch  soft,  z,  x,  or  o, 
form  the  plural  by  adding  es.  Or,  more  briefly ;  Nouns  in  x  form  the 
plural  by  adding  es. 

Fox,  book,  leaf,  candle,  hat,  loaf,  wish,  fish,  sex,  box, 
coach,  inch,  sky,  bounty,  army,  duty,  knife,  echo,  loss, 
cargo,  wife,  story,  church,  table,  glass,  study,  calf,  branch, 
street,  potato,  peach,  sheaf,  booby,  rock,  stone,  house,  glory, 
hope,  flower,  city,  difficulty,  distress,  wolf. 

"  Day,  bay,  relay,  chimney,  journey,  valley,  needle,  enemy, 
army,  vale,  ant,  valley,  hill,  sea,  key,  toy,  monarch,  tyro, 
grotto,  nuncio,  punctilio,  embryo,  gulf,  handkerchief,  hoof, 
staff,  muff,  cliff,  whiff,  cuff,  ruff,  reef,  safe,  wharf,  fief. 

2.  Of  what  number  is — Book,  trees,  plant,  shrub,  globes, 
planets,  toys,  home,  fancy,  mosses,  glass,  state,  foxes,  houses, 
prints,  spoon,  bears,  lilies,  roses,  churches,  glove,  silk,  skies, 
hill,  river,  scenes,  stars,  berries,  peach,  porch,  glass,  pitcher, 
valleys,  mountain,  cameos  ? 

3.  Take  six  of  the  above  words,  and  say  something  respecting  eash ; 
first  in  the  singular,  and  then  in  the  plural. 

Nouns  Irregular  in  the  Plural, 

144,  Some  nouns  are  irregular  in  the  formation  of  their 
plural ;  such  as — 


34 


EN^GLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

Singular. 

PlurdL 

Man 

men 

Tooth 

teeth 

Woman 

women 

Goose 

geese 

Cliild 

children 

Mouse 

mice 

Foot 

feet 

Louse 

lice 

Ox 

oxen 

Cow     forme 

3rly    kine 

but  now  regular,  cows 

145 •  Some  nouns  have  both  a  regular  and  an  irregular 
form  of  the  plural,  but  with  different  significations ;  as — 


Singular 

Plural. 

Brother 

jone  of  the  same  family) 

brothers 

Brother 

(one  of  the  same  society) 

brethren 

Die 

(a  stamp  for  coining) 

dies 

Die 

(a  small  cube  for  gaming) 

dice 

Genius 

(a  man  of  genius) 

geniuses 

Genius 

(a  kind  of  spirit) 

genii 

Index 

(a  table  of  reference) 

indexes 

Index 

(a  sign  in  algebra) 

indices 

Pea 

(as  a  distinct  seed) 

peas 

Pea 

(as  a  species  of  grain) 

pease 

Sow 

(an  individual  animal) 

sows 

Sow  or  swine 

(the  species) 

Bwine 

Penny 

(a  coin ) 

pennies 

Pennj 

(a  sum  or  value) 

pence 

146.  NoTE.- 

—Though  pence  is  plural,  ye 

t  such  an  expr( 

fourpence,  sixpence,  etc.,  as  the  name  of  a  sum,  or  of  a  coin  repre- 
senting that  sum,  is  often  regarded  as  singular,  and  so  capable  of  a 
plural ;  as,  "  Three  fourpences,  or  two  sixpences,  make  a  shilling." 
**  A  new  sixpence  is  heavier  than  an  old  one." 

14:7'  Compounds  ending  in  ful  or  full,  and  generally  those  which 
have  the  important  word  last,  form  the  plural  regularly  ;  as,  spoon- 
ful, cupful,  coachful,  handful,  mouse-trap,  ox-cart,  court-yard,  camera- 
obscura,  etc. ;  plural,  spoonfuls,  cupfuls,  coaehfuls,  etc. 

148.  Compounds  in  which  the  principal  word  stands  iSrst,  pluraL 
Ize  the  first  word ;  as — 

Plural. 
commanders-in-chief 


Singular. 
Commander-in-chief 


Aid-de-camp 
Knight-errant 


aids-de-camp 
knights-errant 


ETYilOLOGY  —  NOUNS  —  NUMBER.  35 

Singular.  Plural. 

Court-martial  courts-martial 

Cousin-gennan  cousins-german 

Father-in-law,  etc.  fathers-iu-law,  etc. 

Man-servant  changes  both;  as,  men-servants.  So  also,  icomenr 
tervants,  knights-templars. 

149.  The  compounds  of  man  form  the  plural  as  the  simple  word; 
as,  fisherman,  fishermen.  But  nouns  accidentally  ending  in  man, 
and  not  compounds  of  Tuan,  form  the  plural  by  the  general  rule  ; 
as,  Turcoman,  Mussulman,  talisman;  plural,  Turcomans,  Mussul- 
mans, etc. 

150.  Proper  names,  when  pluralizcd,  and  other  parts  of  speech 
used  as  nouns,  or  mere  names,  form  the  plural  like  nouns  of  similar 
endings ;  as,  the  Aristotles,  the  Salons,  the  Mariuses,  the  Pompeys, 
the  Giceros  ;  the  ayes  and  noes,  the  ins  and  the  outs ;  by  sixes  and 
sevens,  \iy  fifties ;  three  fourt/is,  two  halves ;  "His  ands and  hia  ors;" 
"  One  of  the  huts  is  superfluous." 

151.  Exception. — Such  words  ending  in  y  after  a  consonant,  fol- 
low the  general  rule  (137),  and  not  the  special  rule  (141) ;  as,  the 
Litys,  the  Tullys,  the  Henrys — "  The  whys  and  the  bys." 

152.  Letters,  marks,  and  numerical  figures,  are  made  plural  by 
adding  's  ;  as,  "  Dot  your  Vs,  and  cross  your  Vs." — "  Your  s's  are  not 
well  made." — "  The  4-'«  and  — 's  are  not  in  line." — "  Four  6's  =eight 
3'«." — "  9'«  give  place  to  0'«." 

153.  Note. — Some  good  writers  form  the  plural  of  proper  names, 
etc.,  in  this  way ;  as,  the  Marius's,  the  Pompey's — the  why's  and  the 
wherefore's.    But  this  is  unnecessary  and  should  be  avoided. 

154:,  Words  adopted  without  change  from  foreign  languages,  gen- 
erally retain  their  original  plural.  As  a  general  rule,  nouns  in  um 
or  on,  havei  a  in  the  plural.  Latin  nouns  in  is,  in  the  plural  change 
is  into  es ;  Greek  nouns  in  is,  change  is  into  ides  :  Latin  nouns  in  a, 
change  a  into  <b  ;  but  Greek  nouns  change  a  into  ata  in  the  plural. 
The  following  are  the  most  common,  some  of  which,  however,  from 
common  use,  have  become  so  much  a  part  of  the  English  language 
as  to  have  also  the  regular  English  form  of  the  plural.  In  the  fol 
lowing  table,  these  are  indicated  by  the  letter  R. 
Singular.  Plural.  Singular.  Plural 

Alumnus  alumni  Analysis  analyses 

Alumna  alumnae  Animalculum        animalcula,  B. 

Amanuensis  amanuenses  Antithesis  antitheses 


EI^GLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Singular. 

Plural, 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Apex 

apices,  R. 

Ignis  fatuus 

ignes  fatui 

Appendix 

appendices,  R. 

In^ey.  {a  pointer)  indexes 

Arcanum 

arcana 

Index  {in  algebra)  indices 

Automaton 

automata,  R. 

Lamina 

laminae 

vAxis 
^  Bandit 

•   axes 

Larva 

larvae 

banditti 

Magus 

magi 

Basis 

bases 

Medium 

media,  R. 

Beau 

beaux,  R. 

Memorandum 

memoranda,  R. 

Calx 

calces,  R. 

Metamorphosis 

metamorphoses 

Cherub 

cherubim,  R. 

Miasma 

miasmata 

Chrysalis 

chrysalides 

Momentum 

momenta,  R. 

Crisis 

crises 

Monsieur 

messieurs 

Criterion 

criteria 

Mr.  {master) 

messrs.  {master^ 

Datum 

data 

Nebula 

nebulae 

Desideratum 

desiderata 

Oasis 

oases 

Diaeresis 

diaereses 

Parenthesis 

parentheses 

Effluvium 

effluvia 

Phenomenon 

phenomena 

Ellipsis 

ellipses 

Radius 

radii 

Emphasis 

emphases 

Scholium 

scholia,  R. 

Encomium 

encomia,  R 

Serayjh 

seraphim,  R. 

Ephemeris 

ephemerides 

Speculum 

specula 

Erratum 

errata 

Stamen 

stamina,  R. 

Focus 

foci 

Stimulus 

stimuli 

Formula 

formulae,  R. 

Stratum 

strata 

Fungus 

fungi,  funguses 

Thesis 

theses 

Genius 

genii  (145) 

Vertebra 

vertebrae 

Genus 

genera 

Vertex 

vertices,  R. 

Gymnasium 

gymnasia,  R. 

Virtuoso 

virtuosi 

Hypothesis 

hypotheses 

Vortex 

vortices,  R. 

■F,y"F,ECISES  0^    ]SrOUKS 

IRREGULAR   I 

IT  NUMBER. 

Give  the  plural  o/^— Man,  foot,  penny,  mouse,  ox,  child, 
woman,  brother,  goose,  tooth ; — sow,  die,  court-martial^ 
father-in-law,  son-in-law ;  cupful,  coachful,  spoonful ; — ■ 
erratum,  medium,  radius,  genius,  lamina,  automaton,  phe- 
nomenon, stratum,  axis,  ellipsis,  stamen,  index,  cheruh^ 
iseraph,  etc. 

Of  what  number  is — Dice,  arcana,  fishermen,  geese,  dor- 


ETYMOLOGY  —  NOUNS  —  KUMBEB.  82 

mice,  nlms,  riches,  thanks,  snuffers,  tongs,  teeth,  woman, 
child,  court-martial,  apparatus,  miasma,  genii,  geniuses, 
indices,  indexes,  mathematics,  Matthew,  James,  John  ? 

Observations  on  Kuniher, 

155,  Some  nouns  are  used  in  the  singular  only.  Such  are  the 
rjames  of  metals,  virtues,  vices,  arts,  sciences,  abstract  qualities,  and 
things  iceighed  or  measured;  as,  gold,  meekness,  piety,  idleness, 
intemperance,  sculpture,  geometry,  uisdom,  flour,  milk,  etc.  Except 
when  different  sorts  of  things  are  expressed ;  as,  wines,  teas,  sugars, 
liquors,  etc. 

156,  Some  nouns  are  used  in  the  plural  only  ;  as,  annals,  antipo- 
des, archives,  assets,  ashes,  billiards,  hitters,  breeches,  clothes,  calends, 
colors  (military  hanners),  dregs,  goods,  hysterics,  ides,  intestines, 
literati,  lees,  letters  (hterature),  minutice,  manners,  morals,  nones, 
orgies,  pleiads,  or  pleiades,  shambles,  tidings,  thanks,  vespers,  vitals, 
victuals :  Also,  things  consisting  of  two  parts ;  as,  bellows,  drawers, 
hose,  nippers,  pincers,  pliers,  snuffers,  scissors,  shears,  tongs,  etc. 

A  few  words  usually  plural,  viz.,  bowels,  embers,  entrails,  lungs, 
have  sometimes  a  singular,  denoting  a  part  or  portion  of  that  ex- 
pressed by  the  plural ;  as  bowel,  lung,  etc. 

157 *  Some  nouns  are  alike  in  \)oth  numbers;  as,  deer,  sheep, 
stcine,  vermin  ;  grouse,  salmon,  tench,  trout ;  apparatus,  hiatus,  series, 
congeries,  species,  superficies  ;  head  (in  the  sense  of  individual),  cattle  ; 
certain  building  materials ;  as,  brick,  stone,  plank,  joist  in  mass  ;  also 
fish  and  sometimes  fowl,  denoting  the  class.  But  several  of  these,  in 
a  plural  sense,  denoting  individuals  have  the  regular  plural  also ;  as, 
salmons,  trouts,  fishes,  fowls,  etc. 

158.  The  words  brace,  couple,  pair,  yoke,  dozen,  score,  gross,  hun- 
dred, thousand,  and  some  others,  after  adjectives  of  number,  are 
either  singular  or  plural ;  as,  a  brace,  a  dozen,  a  hundred  ;  two  brace, 
three  dozen,  six  hundred,  etc.  But  without  an  adjective  of  number, 
or  in  other  constructions,  and  particularly  after  in,  by,  etc.,  in  a  dis- 
tributive sense,  most  of  these  words,  in  the  plural,  assume  a  plural 
form  ;  as,  "In  braces  and  dozens" — "By  scores  and  hundreds." — 
**  Worth  thousands." 

1^  159,  1.  The  following  words,  plural  in  form,  are  sometimes  sin- 
gular, but  most  commonly  y^lural  in  signification,  viz. :  amends,  means, 
riches,  pains  (meaning  laborious  efforts),  odds,  alms,  wages ;  and  tha 


88  ENGLISH    GRAM  MAE. 

names  of  certain  sciences;  as,  matliematics,  ethics,  optics,  acoustics, 
metaphysics,  politics,  pneumatics,  hydrostatics,  etc. 

2.  Means  and  amends,  referring  to  one  object,  are  singular;  to 
more  than  one,  plural.  Mean,  in  the  singular  forai,  is  now  used  to 
signify  the  middle  between  two  extremes.  Alms  {(jelmesse,  Anglo- 
Saxon)  and  riches  {richesse,  French)  are  really  singular,  though  now 
used  commonly  in  a  plural  sense.  News,  formerly  singular  or  plural, 
is  now  mostly  singular.  Molasses  and  measles,  though  ending  like  a 
plural,  are  singular,  and  are  so  used.  Oats  is  generally  plural ;  gal- 
lows is  both  singular  and  plural,  though  a  distinct  plural  form,  gal^ 
lowses,  is  also  in  use. 

100.  The  following  are  singular  in  form,  but  in  construction  va- 
rious ;  thus,  foot  and  horse,  meaning  bodies  of  troops,  and  people, 

,  meaning  persons,  are  always  construed  as  plural ;  cannon,  shot,  sail, 
cavalry,  infantry,  as  singular  or  plural.  People  (also  folk),  when  it 
signifies  a  community  or  body  of  persons,  is  a  collective  noun  in  tlie 
singular,  and  sometimes,  though  rarely,  takes  a  plural  form ;  as, 
**  Many  peoples  and  nations."    Rev.  x.  11. 

The  JPlural  of  Proper  Names, 

101,  Proper  names  for  the  most  part  want  the  plural ;  but — 

1.  Proper  names  without  a  title  are  used  in  the  plural,  when  they 
refer  to  a  race  or  family ;  as,  "  The  Campbells,"  "  the  Stuarts  ;"  or  to 
several  persons  of  the  same  name ;  as,  "  The  twelve  Ccesars  ;"  or  when 
they  are  used  to  denote  character ;  as,  "  The  Ciceros  of  the  age." 

2.  Proper  names  with  the  title  of  Mrs.  prefixed,  or  with  any  title, 
preceded  by  the  numerals,  two,  three,  etc.,  pluralize  the  name,  and  not 
the  title ;  as,  "  The  Mrs.  Howards  ;"  "  the  two  Miss  Mortons  ;"  "  the 
two  Mr.  Henrys." 

3.  But  when  several  persons  of  the  same  name  are  spoken  of  indi- 
vidually, and  distinguished  by  a  particular  appellation,  or  when  per- 
sons of  different  names  are  spolien  of  together,  the  title  only,  and  not 
the  name  is  made  plural ;  as,  "  Misses  Julia  and  Mary  Robinson ;" 
"  Messrs.  George  and  Andrew  Thomson ;"  "  Messrs.  Jones,  Brown, 
and  Robinson." 

Thus  far,  usage  and  the  rule  are  settled  and  uniform ;  but — 
4  In  other  cases,  usage  is  still  unsettled.  Some  writers,  perhaps 
the  majority,  pluralize  the  title  and  not  the  name ;  as,  "  The  Misses 
Brown;"  "the  Messrs.  Harper."  Others,  of  equal  authority,  regard 
ing  the  title  as  a  sort  of  adjective,  or  the  whole  as  a  compound  name, 
pluralize  the  name,  and  not  the  title ;  as,  "  The  Miss  Browns  ;"  **  the 


ETYMOLOGY  —  WORDS  —  CASE.  39 

Mr.  Harpers."  This  form  is  more  common  in  conversation,  and, 
being  less  stiff  and  formal,  is  more  likely  to  prevail.  A  few  improp- 
erly pluralize  botli  name  and  title;  as,  "The  Misses  Browns;"  "the 
Messrs.  Harpers" 

5.  Names,  with  other  titles  prefixed,  follow  the  same  analogy ;  as, 
"  Lords  Wellington  and  Lynedoch ;"  "  the  lords  bishops  of  Durham 
and  St.  David's ;"  "  the  generals  Grant  and  Sherman." 


Cases  of  TTotiiis. 


162,  Case  is  the  state  or  condition  of  a  noun 
with  respect  to  the  other  words  in  a  sentence.  See 
164-166. 

163,  Nouns  in  English  have  three  cases,  the 
Noniinative,  Possessive,  and  Objective, 

164,  A  noun  is  in  the  Nominative  case — 

1.  When  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb  (315) ; 

as,  "  John  reads." 

2.  When  it  is  used  as  a  predicate  (586) ;  as,  "John  is  a 

good  hoy.-^ 

3.  Wlien  it  is  used  absolutely,  or  independent  of  any 

other  word;  as,  "0  Absalom,  my  son!" 

Remark. — A  nonn  used  in  ^rect  address,  as  in  the  last  instance, 
is  by  some  said  to  be  in  the  vocative  case. 

16 o.  The  J?ossessive  case  connects  with  the  name 
of  an  object,  the  idea  of  origm,  possession,  or  fitness;  as. 
The  sun's  rays ;  John's  book ;  a  boifs  cap ;  men's  shoes.  It 
is  always  found  with  another  substantive,  whose  meaning 
it  limits  (839). 

A  noun  in  the  possessive  case  limits  the  noim  to  which  it  is  joined, 
like  an  adjective,  but  should  be  parsed  as  a  noun ;  for  it  never  loses 
its  characteristics  as  such ;  as,  "  If  this  comes  to  the  governor's  esLra, 
we  will  persuade  him"  etc.  (Matt,  xxiii.  14). 


40  EKGLISHGllAMMAR. 

166.  The  Objective  case  is  used — 

1.  To  denote  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  (317)  in  the 

active  voice  (368);  as,  "James  assists  TJwmas. 

2.  To  denote  the  object  of  a  relation  expressed  by  a 
s,  preposition  (538);  as,  "They  Hve  in  London" 

',    3.  To  denote  time,  vahie,  weight,  or  measure,  without  a 
^  governing  word  (828) ;  as,  "James  is  ten  years  old." 

'  [Wote. — Some  authors  assign  the  nominative  case  to  words  used 
merely  as  names.  Words  not  in  relation  can,  strictly  speaking,  have 
no  case,  but,  for  convenience  in  referring  to  them,  this  distinction  is, 
in  some  instances,  retained.] 

GENERAL  RULES. 

167.  The  nominative  and  the  objective  of 

nouns  are  alike  in  form. 

168.  The  j)Ossessive  singular  is  formed  Iby  add- 
ing an  apostrophe  and  s  to  the  nominative ;  as, 
JohrCs, 

169.  When  the  plural  ends  in  «,  the  possessive 
is  formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe  only ;  as,  ladies^ . 
But  when  the  plural  does  not  end  in  «,  both  the 
apostrophe  and  s  are  added  ;  as,  men^s^  children's. 

Inflection  of  Nouns. 

170'  Nouns  are  thus  inflected —    • 

Singular.    Plural.         Singular.    Plural.  Singular. 

N'om.        Lady  ladies  Man  men  John 

Poss.         Lady's         ladies'  Man's  men's  John's 

Ohj.  Lady  ladies  Man  men  John 

171.  Proper  names  for  the  most  part  want  the  plural  (161). 

-V^  Observations  on  the  Possessive. 

1 72,  The  ^s  in  the  possessive  case  is  evidently  an  al)bre\iation  for 
the  old  English  termination  of  the  genitive  in  es  or  is.  Thus,  "  The 
king's  crown"  was  written,  "  The  kingi*  crown."  That  8  is  not  an  ab- 
breviation for  his,  as  some  have  supposed,  is  manifest  from  the  fact, 
that  it  is  used  where  his  could  not  be  pr(^erly  employed ;  thus,  wo* 


ETYMOLOGY  —  NOUKS  —  POSSESSIVE.        4\ 

man's,  men's,  children's,  book's,  etc ,  can  not  be  resolved  into  woman 
his,  men  his,  children  his,  etc. 

The  apostrophe  ( ' )  after  a  in  the  plural,  is  not  a  mark  of  abbre- 
viation,  but  is  used  in  modern  times,  merely  as  a  sign  of  the  pos- 
sessive.    Its  use  in  the  plural  is  of  but  recent  date. 

1 73,  When  the  nominative  singular  ends  in  ss,  or  in 
letters  of  a  similar  sound,  though  to  retain  the  s  after  tlie 
apostrophe  is  never  wrong,  yet,  as  a  matter  of  taste,  it  is 
sometimes  omitted  in  order  to  avoid  harshness,  or  too  close 
a  succession  of  hissing  sounds ;  as,  "  For  goodness'  sake ;" 
"  for  conscience'  sake ;"  so  also  "  Moses'  disciples ;"  "  Jesus' 
feet." 

1 74,  Note. — There  is  considerable  diversity  of  opinion  and  usage 
on  this  point.  Some  few  insist  on  retaining  s  after  the  apostrophe  in 
every  position  ;  as,  "  Xanthus's  stock  of  patience." — V Estrange.  Oth- 
ers drop  the  s  only  before  a  word  beginning  with  an  s  or  an  s-sound, 
as  above ;  while  others  drop  the  s  wherever  the  use  of  it  would  pro- 
duce harshness,  or  difficulty  of  pronunciation.  Though  in  this  last, 
tlie  usage  which  omits  the  s  is  less  prevalent  and  less  accurate  than 
that  which  retains  it,  yet,  from  the  sanction  it  has  obtained — from  the 
stiffness  and  harshness  which  retaining  the  s  often  occasions — and 
from  the  tendency  in  all  spoken  language  to  abbreviation  and  euphony, 
it  seems  destined  to  prevail  against  all  arguments  to  the  contrary. 

175,  Remark. — In  written  language,  the  omission  of  the  s  occa- 
sions but  little  inconvenience ;  for  the  apostrophe  sufficiently  indicates 
the  case,  and  the  construction  will  generally  indicate  the  number.  In 
spoken  language,  however,  the  use  of  the  s  is  more  necessary,  to  avoid 
obscurity,  especially  in  proper  names.  Thus,  in  spoken  language, 
"  Davy's  Surveying,"  and  "  Davies'  Surveying,"  sound  precisely  alike, 
though  the  names  are  different.  Hence,  to  indicate  the  last  name 
correctly  in  speaking,  it  will  be  more  accurate,  though  less  euphonic, 
to  say,  "Davies's  Sur\'eying."  Thus,  also,  "Perkins'  Arithmetic,' 
"  Sparks'  Analysis,"  in  spoken  language,  may  be  mistaken  for  "  Per- 
kin's  Arithmetic,"  "  Spark's  Analysis."  In  such  cases,  precision  will 
be  secured  at  the  expense  of  euphony,  by  retaining  the  s,  while 
euphony  will  be  attained,  frequently  at  the  expense  of  precision,  by 
dropping  it. 

11 Q,  The  meaning  of  the  possessive  may,  in  general,  be  expressed 
by  the  word  o/with  the  objective;  thus,  for  "man's  wisdom."  "xir- 


43  EKGLISHGEAMMAR. 

tue's  reward,"  we  may  say,  "  the  wisdom  of  man,"  "  the  reward  of 
virtue."  This  mode  will  generally  be  preferred,  when  the  use  of  the 
possessive  would  appear  stiff  or  awkward ;  thus,  "  the  length  of  the 
day,"  is  better  than  "  the  day's  length."  In  some  few  words  which 
want  the  possessive  plural,  such  as  father-in-law,  court-martial,  etc., 
this  is  the  only  substitute.  These  two  modes  of  expression,  however, 
are  not  always  equivalent;  thus,  "the  king's  picture,"  means  any  pic- 
ture belonging  to  the  king ;  "  a  picture  of  the  king,"  means  a  portrait 
of  him,  without  saying  to  whom  it  belongs.  So  also,  of  with  the  ob- 
jective, can  not  always  be  represented  by  the  possessive  ;  as,  "A  piece 
of  gold,"  "  a  cord  of  wood,"  "  the  house  of  representatives,"  etc.  (844). 

l^arsing  the  ^oun  (93), 

177.  A  noun  is  parsed  etyinologically^  "by- 
stating  its  accidents,  or  grammatical  properties 
(110),  as  exemplified  (181). 

17s,  Note. — The  possessive  is  easily  known  by  its  form.  As  the 
nominative  and  objective  of  nouns  are  alike,  in  parsing  nouns  in  the 
following  lists,  all  nouns  not  in  the  possessive,  may  be  said  to  be  in 
the  nominative.  The  method  of  distinguishing  the  nominative  and 
objective  will  be  explained  in  its  proper  place.  As  person  belongs, 
not  to  the  form,  but  to  the  relations  of  the  noun,  the  mention  of  it 
may  be  omitted  for  the  present. 

179,  N.  B. — In  all  parsing,  much  time  will  be  saved,  if  the  pupil 
be  accustomed  to  say  everything  necessary  to  be  said,  at  once,  with- 
out waiting  to  have  eacli  particular  drawn  from  him  by  a  question-^ 
to  say  it  in  the  shortest  possible  manner — and  also  to  say  the  same 
things  always  in  the  same  order.  Every  teacher  will  of  course  select 
that  order  which  he  prefers.  The  order  here  presented  may  perhaps 
be  acceptable  to  most  teachers  (182). 

ISO.  As  it  makes  no  difference  in  the  construction  of  a  sentence, 
whether  a  noun  be  proper  or  common,  there  seems  to  be  little  or  no 
advantage  in  mentioning  this  distinction  in  parsing.  Some  accord- 
ingly omit  this,  as  well  as  person  in  parsing,  for  the  sake  of  brevity — 
an  object  worthy  of  consideration  in  a  large  school,  where  economy 
of  time  is  important.  Or,  when  a  proper  noun  occurs,  which  is  com- 
paratively seldom,  it  may  be  mentioned,  taking  it  always /6>r  granted 
that  a  noun  is  common  when  not  otherwise  mentioned.  This  appears 
to  be  sufficient  for  every  purpose. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  NOUJ^S.  48 

PRELIMINARY  ORAL  EXERCISE. 

181,  In  proceeding  to  parse  the  noun,  the  teacher,  if  he  tliinks 
proper,  may  begin  by  some  such  inductive  process  as  the  following : 

The  class  having  gone  through  the  preceding  definitions  and  rules, 
the  teacher  may  call  on  some  one  to  mention  the  name  of  any  thing 
he  sees,  or  happens  to  think  of;  and  suj^pose  he  mentions  the  words 
hovse,  tree,  book,  desk,  pen,  etc.,  let  these  words  be  written  on  the 
blackboard.  He  may  then  call  on  another,  and  another,  in  the  same 
way,  still  writing  the  names  as  mentioned.  In  this  way  the  pupils 
will  furnish  a  list  of  exercises  for  themselves. 

The  teacher  may  then  take  the  first  of  these,  "  house,"  and  write  it 
by  itself  on  the  board,  at  the  left  hand,  and  proceed  with  some  such 
questions  as  the  following,  the  answers  to  which,  from  what  has  been 
previously  learned,  will  be  obvious,  and  readily  given : — 

Is  House  the  name  of  any  thing? 

What  part  of  speech  is  the  name  of  a  thing  ? 

Then,  what  part  of  speech  is  House  ?    Ans.  "A  nounJ* 
(After  the  word  hovse  on  the  board  now  write  the  word  "  noun") 

What  is  a  noun  ? — How  many  kinds  of  nouns  are  there  ? 

What  is  a  proper  noun  ? — what  a  common  noun  ? 

Is  the  word  7i^w«e  proper  or  common  ?    Ans.  Common.    Why? 
(Then  after  the  word  "  noun  "  write  the  word  common,  as  before.) 

What  are  the  properties  or  accidents  of  the  noun  ? 

What  is  gender? — How  many  genders  are  there? 

What  nouns  are  masculine? — what  feminine? — what  neuter? 

To  which  of  these  does  the  word  A<>Mse  belong?  Kus.  Neuter.  Why! 
(Then  write  the  word  neuter  after  common,  as  above.) 

What  is  the  next  property  of  the  noun  ? 

What  is  number? — How  many  numbers  are  there? 

What  does  the  singular  denote  ? — the  plural  ? 

Does  Jiouse  denote  one  or  more  than  one  ? 

Of  what  number  then  is  home  ?    Ans.  Singular. 
(Xow  add  as  above  the  word  singular.) 

What  is  the  next  property  of  a  noun  ? 

How  many  cases  are  there  ?    Name  them. 

Inflect  house  in  the  singular:  in  the  plural. 

Which  of  these  cases  is  used  when  a  noun  is  mentioned  simply  a^ 
the  name  of  an  object?  (16 G — Note). 

Honse  being  used  in  this  manner  here,  in  what  case  is  it  ?  Ans.  In 
the  Nominative. 

(Then  write  nominative  at  the  end,  as  above.) 


44  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

There  will  now  have  been  written  on  the  blackboard  the  follow, 
ing:— 

House,  Noun,  Common,  Neuter,  Siiigular,  Nominative. 

The  teacher  may  then  ask,  as  a  sort  of  review  :  Why  do  you  call 
house,  a  nounf — why,  common? — why,  neuter f — why,  singular? — 
why,  the  nominative  ? — requiring  a  distinct  answer  to  each  question. 
And  lastly,  he  may  require  the  pupil  to  state  these  reasons  in  order, 
without  the  questions  being  asked ;  thus : — 

House — a  Noun,  because  the  name  of  a  thing ; 

Common,  because  it  belongs  to  all  tilings  of  the  sort ; 
Neuter,  because  without  sex ; 
Singular,  because  it  denotes  one,  x^lural,  Jiouses ; 
Nominative,  because  it  is  used  only  as  a  name  (166). 

By  repeating  this  process  a  few  times,  occasionally,  all  that  belongs 
to  the  parsing  of  a  noun  will  become  so  familiar,  and  so  clearly  un- 
derstood, as  to  be  always  easy. 

182,  In  parsing,  these  accidents  may  be -stated,  either  in  the  order 
above,  or  in  such  as  the  teacher  prefers.  Some  say,  "  A  common  neu- 
ter noun,  in  the  nominative  singular."  Others  prefer,  as  giving  more 
prominence  to  the  accidents,  and  sujfficiently  euphonious,  to  say,  "  A 
noun,  common,  neuter,  in  the  nominative  singular ; — or  omitting  the 
kind  of  noun,  except  when  a  proper  noun  occurs,  for  reasons  stated 
(180),  to  say  more  briefly,  "A  noun,  neuter,  in  the  nominative  singu- 
lar." This  last  method  is  the  one  here  recommended,  as  being  brief 
and  sufficiently  descriptive. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  State  the  gender,  case,  and  number  of  the  following  nouns,  and 
always  in  the  same  order ;  thus,  "  Father,  a  noun,  masculine,  in  the 
nominative,  singular." 

Father,  brothers,  mother's,  boys,  book,  loaf,  arms,  wife, 
hats,  sisters',  bride's,  bottles,  brush,  goose,  eagles'  wings, 
echo,  ox's  horn,  mouse,  kings,  queens,  bread,  child's  toy, 
grass,  tooth,  tongs,  candle,  chair,  Jane's  boots,  Robert's 
shoe,  horse,  bridle. 

3.  Go  over  the  same  list,  giving  a  reason  for  everything  stated ; 
thus,  "Father,  a  noun,  because  the  name  of  an  object;  masculine,  be- 
cause it  denotes  a  male ;  nominative,  because  mentioned  simply  as  the 
name  of  an  object  (166) ;  singular,  because  it  denotes  one." 


ETYMOLOGY  —  AETICLja.  45 

THE  ARTICLE. 

183.  An  article  is  a  word  put  before  a  noun,  to 
fiidicate  the  manner  in  which  it  is  used  (707,  etc.). 

184.  There  are  two  articles,  a  or  an  and  the.      ^ 
18a.  A  or  an  is  called  the  indefinite  article,  be- 
cause it  shows  that  its  noun  denotes  a  person  or  thing 
indefinitely,  or  without  distinction ;  as,  A  man,  i.  e.,  any 
man,  or  some  man,  without  stating  which  one. 

186.  A  is  used  before  a  consonant;  as,  a  looh:  also 
before  a  vowel  or  diphthong,  which  combines  with  its  sound 
the  power  of  initial  y,  or  w;  as,  a  unit,  a  use,  a  eulogy,  a 
ewe,  many  a  one. 

187.  An  is  used  before  a  vowel  or  silent  h;  as,  an  age, 
an  Jiourj  also  before  words  beginning  with  h  sounded, 
when  the  accent  is  on  the  second  syllable;  as,  an  heroic 
action,  an  historical  account ; — because  h  in  such  words  is 
but  slightly  sounded. 

188.  Note. — The  primary  form  of  this  article  is  An  (ane).  The 
n  has  been  dropped  before  a  consonant,  from  regard  to  euphony. 

180.  A  or  an  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  one^ 
each,  every ;  as,  "Six  cents  a  pound;"  "two  shillings  a 
yard;"  "one  dollar  a  day;"  "four  hundred  a  year"  (192). 

190.  Remark. — In  the  expressiops  a  hunting,  a  fishing,  a  going, 
a  running,  a  building,  and  the  like ;  also,  in  the  expressions,  now 
nearly  obsolete,  "  a  Wednesdays,"  "  a  nights,"  "  a  pieces,"  etc.,  a  is 
equivalent  to  at,  to,  in,  on,  and  is  to  be  regarded,  not  as  an  article, 
but  as  a  preposition  (548) ;  or  the  entire  expression  may  be  taken 
together  as  an  adverbial  i)hrase  (548).  _ 

191.  The  is  called  the  definite  article,  because  it 
shows  that  its  noun  is  used  definitely,  and  refers  to  some 
particular  person  or  thing ;  as,  the  man,  i.  e.,  some  particu- 
lar man  ascertained  or  pointed  out.     See  S3nitax  (707-2). 

192.  Note. — The  article  is  sometimes  said  to  limit  the  significa* 


46  ENGLISH    GRAMMAB. 

tion  of  a  noun,  and  is  therefore  called  a  "  definitive."  This  is  scarcely 
correct.  A  noun  with  a  or  an  prefixed,  is  always  used  in  an  individ- 
ual sense,  to  denote  one,  of  a  class.  But  this  being  for  the  most  part 
sufficiently  indicated  by  the  singular  number,  the  use  of  the  article  to 
mark  the  individual  is  necessary  only  in  the  few  cases  in  which  the 
noun,  in  the  singular  number,  is  used  in  a  generic,  as  well  as  individ- 
ual sense.  Thus,  the  terms  man,  woman,  oak,  etc.,  without  an  article, 
mean  the  species  ;  but  with  a  or  an  prefixed,  they  mean  the  individ- 
ual ;  as,  a  man,  a  woman,  an  oak.  So  far  only  can  a  or  an  properly 
be  said  to  limit,  or  perform  the  part  of  a  definitive.  In  other  respects, 
it  rather  shows  the  want  of  limitation. 

103,  In  like  manner,  the  article  the  commonly  indicates  that  its 
noun  is  limited,  and  refers  to  some  particular  person  or  thing,  but 
still  the  article  is  not  the  limiting  word.  A  noun  may  be  limited  in 
a  variety  of  ways ;  by  notoriety  or  eminence,  by  previous  mention,  by 
an  adjective,  a  possessive,  a  relative  clause,  a  preposition  and  its  case, 
etc.,  but  never  by  the  article,  except  perhaps  in  the  case  of  previous 
mention,  and  even  that  is  doubtful.  Thus,  when  we  say,  "  The  red 
book,"  "  the  hoy's  book,"  "  the  book  which  we  lost,"  "  the  book  on  the 
tahle,"  we  perceive  that  the  word  look,  following  the,  is  limited — not, 
however,  by  the  article,  but  by  the  words  red,  hoy's,  etc.  This  fact 
constitutes  a  specific  difference  between  the  article  and  the  adjective  : 
the  adjective  always  describes  or  limits  its  noun  (195) ;  the  article  does 
not,  but  is  only  a  sort  of  index,  to  give  previous  notice  that  the  noun 
is  used  in  a  particular  way. 

JParsing  the  Article. 

194.  The  article  is  parsed  by  stating  whether  it 
is  definite  or  indefinite,  <£iiid  to  what  noun  it  belongs  ; 
thus,  ''A  book."  A  is  the  indefinite  article,  and 
belongs  to  booJc, 

Is  it  proper  to  say- 


-a  man, 

or  an  man? 

why? 

a  apple, 

or  an  apple  ? 

why? 

a  house, 

or  an  house  ? 

why? 

a  hour. 

or  an  hour  ? 

why? 

a  unicorn. 

or  an  unicorn? 

why? 

a  ewe, 

or  an  ewe? 

why? 

ETYMOLOGY  —  ADJECTIVES.  47 

1.  Prefix  the  indetinite  article  a  or  an  correctly  to  the  followmg 
words. 

'Z.  Tell  which  words  are  nouns,  and  why — parse  them  (177) — inflect 
them. 

Chair,  table,  horse,  cart,  book,  house,  garden,  bird,  owl, 
egg,  oar,  eye,  tree,  cow,  unit,  use,  old  man,  young  man, 
word,  hook,  pot,  bench,  desk,  room,  oven,  oak,  eulogy,  ewe, 
uncle,  aunt; — open  wagon,  useful  contrivance,  round  stone, 
old  hat. 

3.  In  the  following',  correct  such  as  are  wrong,  and  give  a  reason 
for  the  change ; — parse  the  articles  and  nouns. 

An  cup,  a  door,  a  apple,  a  pear,  a  ounce,  a  pound,  an  hat, 
an  wig,  an  eulogy,  an  youth,  a  honor,  a  heir,  a  crow,  a  os- 
trich, a  pen — a  ugly  beast,  a  useful  tree,  an  humming-bird, 
an  neat  cottage,  a  upper  room,  an  huge  monster. 


THE'  ADJECTIVE. 


195,  An  Adjective  is  a  word  nsed  to  qualify  a 
substantive  (109);  as,  *'A  good  boy;"  ''a  square 
box  ;"   "  ten  dollars  ;"   "we  found  him poor.'^'' 

19 S,  A  noun  is  qtuilified  by  an  adjective,  when  the  object  named 
is  thereby  described,  limited,  or  distinguished  from  other  things  of  the 
same  name.    This  is  done  in  two  ways : — 

1.  Certain  adjectives  connect  with  their  nouns  some  quality  by 
which  the  objects  named  are  described  or  distinguished  from  others 
of  the  same  kind;  as,  "A  red  flag;"  "an  amusing  story."  Such  are 
common  and  participial  adjectives  (203,  206). 

2.  Others  merely  limit,  %vithout  expressing  any  quality ;  as,  "  An 
American  book  ;"  '•  ten  dollars  ;"  " last  week  ;'  "  this  year ;"  "  every 
day,"  etc.  Such  are  circumstantial,  numeral,  and  definitive  adjectives 
O>04,  205,  206,  v.). 

197.  Adjectives,  as  predicates  (586),  may  qualify  an 
infinitive  mood  (393),  or  clause  of  a  sentence  (585)  used  as 


4:8  EKGLISHGRAMMAR. 

a  substantive ;  as,  "  To  play  is  pleasant" — '*'  That  the  riJi 
are  happy  is  not  always  true  "  (684). 

198.  Several  adjectives  sometimes  qualify  the  same 
noun  ;  as,  "A  smooth,  round  stone"  (583,  1 ;  716). 

199»  An  adjective  is  sometimes  used  to  qualify  the 
meaning  of  another  adjective,  the  two  forming  a  sort  of 
compound  adjective ;  as,  "A  hright-red  color ;"  "  a  dark-blue 
coat ;"  "  a  cast-iron  baU  "  (618). 

200.  When  other  parts  of  speech  are  used  to  qualify  or 
limit  a  noun  or  pronoun,  they  perform  the  part  of  an  ad- 
jective, and  should  be  parsed  as  such;  thus, 

JSoufi;  as,  A  gold  ring;  silver  cup,  sea  water,  a  stone 
bridge. 

l^ronoiins ;  as,  A  he  bear;  a  she  wolf. 

Adverbs ;  as.  Is  the  child  well  ?  for  very  age ;  the  then 
king. 

Prepositions ;  as.  The  alove  remark;  the  under  side. 

201*  On  the  contrary,  adjectives  without  a  substantive 
are  sometimes  used  as  nouns ;  as,  "  God  rewards  the  good, 
and  punishes  the  had." — "  The  virtuous  are  the  most  happy" 
Adjectives  used  in  this  way  are  usually  preceded  by  the, 
and  when  applied  to  persons,  are  for  the  most  part  consid- 
ered pluraL 

Division  of  Adjectives, 

202,  Adjectives  are  sometimes  divided  into  the  follow- 
ing classes,  viz. : 

203.  I.  Adjectives  denoting  quality^  called  Common 
Adjectives  ;  as,  good,  sweet,  large,  short. 

Various  kinds  of  qualities  may  be  expressed: — 
1.  Those  which  are  recognized  directly  by  the  senses^ 
aS;  white  snow,  flowing  stream. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  ADJECTIVES.  49 

2.  Those  which  we  can  affirm  of  anything  only  as  com^ 
pared  with  others;  as,  large  man,  short  pencil. 

3.  Those  which  express  a  i^elation  in  which  any  thing 
stands  to  ourselves  or  others;  as,  an  agreeable  acquaintance. 

^04.    II.  Adjectives    denoting    quantity;   as,    one, 

imicli,  little,^ 

Note. — When  adjectives  of  magnitude  refer  to  distinct  individuals, 
they  indicate  qaalUy  rather  than  quatUity ;  as,  great  lion,  a 
»mall  tree. 

Of  adjectives  denoting  quantity,  there  are  four  classes : 

1.  Definite  numeral  adjectives,  denoting  some  exact 
number;  as,  seven  men. 

Numeral  adjectives  arc  of  two  kinds,  Cardinal  and 
Ordinal, 

The  Cardinal  numbers  indicate  Jiow  many ;  they  are 
one,  tivo,  three,  four,  etc. 

The  Ordinal  numbers  indicate  which  one  of  a  num- 
her ;  they  are  fa'st,  secotid,  third,  etc.  In  compound  num- 
bers, the  last  only  has  the  ordinal  form;  as,  tiventy-^mST; 
tivo  hundred  and  fifty-TKinD,  etc. 

Numeral  adjectives,  being  also  names  of  numbers,  are 
often  used  as  nouns,  and  so  have  the  inflection  and  con- 
struction of  nouns ;  thus,  by  tivos,  by  tens,  by  fifties.  For 
ten^s  sake,  for  twenty^ s  sake.  One  and  one  are  tivo.  Two 
IS  an  even  number.  Five  is  the  half  of  ten.  Three  fives 
ARE  fifteen.  Fifteen  is  divisible  by  three.  Twice  two  is 
four.*    Four  is  equal  to  twice  two.    Three  fourths. 


*  In  some  arithmetics,  the  language  employed  in  the  operation  of 
multiplying — such  as  "  Twice  two  are  four,  twice  three  are  six  " — is 
incorrect.  It  should  be,  "  Twice  two  is  four,"  etc. ;  for  the  word  tioo 
is  used  as  a  singular  noun — the  name  of  a  nimiber.  The  adverb 
"  tuice "  is  not  in  construction  with  it,  and  consequently  does  not 
make  it  plural.  The  meaning  is,  "  The  number  two  taken  twice  is 
equal  to  four."    For  the  same  reason  we  should  say,  "  Three  times 

3 


50  EKGLISHGRAMMAB. 

2.  Indefinite  mimeral  adjectives  are  such  as  do  not 
denote  any  exact  number;  as,feiv,  many,  several,  certain,  etc. 

3.  Distributive  numeral  adjectives  are  such  as 
point  out  a  number  of  objects  individually;  the  principal 
are  each,  every,  either,  neither. 

These  are  sometimes  called  adjective  pronouns  (296.) 

4.  Those  denoting  quantity  as  applied  to  materials; 
as,  mtcch,  little,  some,  any. 

205,  III.  Circuntstantialf  which  express  circum- 
stances of  time,  place,  nation,  etc. 

206.  IV.  I^articipialf  consisting  of  participles,  or 
compounds  of  participles,  used  as  adjectives ;  as,  an  amusing 
story,  an  unmerited  rebuke ;  to  pass  unmolested. 

The  former  of  these  loses  its  verbal  character,  and  simply  describes ; 
the  latter  sometimes  performs  the  office  of  a  participle,  although  evi- 
dently compounded  after  its  derivation. 

[To  these  some  add — 

V.  Definitive  or  distinguishing  adjectives,  which  do  not 
express  any  property  of  an  object,  but  merely  point  it  out,  or  limit  in 
various  ways  the  meaning  of  the  noun.  To  this  class  belong  such 
words  as  this,  that,  these,  those,  former,  latter.  These  sometimes  ac^ 
company  the  noun,  and  sometimes  refer  to  it  understood,  or  stand 
instead  of  it,  after  the  manner  of  pronouns,  and  hence  are  sometime© 
called  Pronominal  adjectives,  and  sometimes  Adjective  pronouns. 
(See  289.)] 

Kemark. — The  articles,  a  or  an^  and  the,  are  sometimes  classic 
fied  as  adjectives.    (See  192,  193.) 


two  IS  six,"  because  the  meaning  is,  "  Two  taken  three  times  is  six." 
Tf  we  say,  "  Three  times  one  are  three,"  we  make  "  times  "  the  subject 
of  the  verb,  whereas  the  subject  of  the  verb  really  is  ''one,"  and 
"  times  "  is  in  the  objective  of  number  (828).  2  : 4 : :  6 :  12,  should  be 
read,  "  As  2  is  to  4,  so  is  6  to  12 ;"  not  "  As  two  are  to  four,  so  are,"  etc. 
But  when  numerals  denoting  more  than  one  are  used  as  adjectives, 
with  a  substantive  expressed  or  understood,  they  must  have  a  pluraj 
construction :  as,  "  Two  are  better  than  one." 


ETYMOLOGY  —  ADJECTIVES.  61 

207.  Table  of  Adjectives. 

rl.  Sensible Red. 

1.  Op  Quality  .    .  <2.  Comparative Long. 

( 3.  Relational Pleasant 

^DefinUe  numeral  i  Cardinal .  One. 
(Ordinal   .First. 

2.  Of  Quantity    A  Indefinite Few,  many. 

Distnhutive Each. 

'Measure Much. 

/  Time Daily. 

3.  Circumstantial  •!  Place Eastern. 

\  Nation,  eXc American. 

(Proper  adjectives.) 

.4.  Participial.    .  P^«c^^«^«^ Amusing. 

(  Vei'bal  (Comjwund)  ....  Unmerited. 

20S,  Adjectives  in  English  are  inflected  only  to  express  degrees 
of  comparison  ;  as,  wise,  wiser,  wisest. 


Comparison  of  Adjectives. 

200.  Common  and  participial  adjectives  for  the 
most  part  have  three  forms,  called  degrees  of  com- 
parison ;  namely,  I*ositlve,  Comparative^  and 
Sii2}erlative. 

210.  The  JPositive  expresses  a  quality,  simply  ; 
as,  ''  Gold  is  heavy. ^^ 

211.  The  Cmnparative  expresses  a  quality  in  a 
higher  degree  in  one  object  than  in  another,  or  in 
several  taken  together;  as,  "Gold  is  heavier  i\\2in 
silver."     '*  He  is  wiser  than  his  teachers." 

212.  The  Superlative  expresses  a  quality  in 
one  object  in  the  highest  degree  compared  with 


M  E1S"GLISHGKAMMAK. 

several  othei-s  ;  as,  *'Gold  is  the  most  precious  ot 
the  metals." 

Sometimes,  in  the  comparison  of  two  objects,  the  quahty 
compared  is  not  named,  but  the  meaning  of  the  adjective 
sufficiently  indicates  the  quahty ;  as,  "  My  barn  is  larger 
than  your  house ;"  that  is,  the  size,  etc.,  is  larger. 

213.  Remark. — The  superlative  degree,  wlien  made  by  prefixing 
tlie  adverb  most,  is  often  used  to  express  a  very  high  degree  of  a 
quality  in  an  object,  vidthout  directly  comparing  it  with  others ;  as, 
"  He  is  a  most  distinguished  man."  Thus  used,  it  is  called  the  super- 
lative of  eminence,  and  commonly  has  a  or  an  before  it,  if  the  noun  is 
singular ;  and  is  without  an  article,  if  the  noun  is  plural.  The  same 
thing  is  expressed  by  prefixing  the  adverb  very,  exceedingly,  etc. ;  as, 
"  a  very  distinguished  man ;"  "  very  distinguished  men."  The  super- 
lative of  comparison  commmonly  has  the  before  it. 

KULES  POE  COMPARISON. 

214:,  Rule  1.  Adjectives  of  one  syllable  form  the  com- 
parative by  adding  er  to  the  positive,  and  the  superlative 
by  adding  est ;  as,  sweet,  sweeter,  sweetest. 

Words  ending  in  e  mute,  drop  e  before  er  and  est ;  as,  large, 
larger,  largest.    (66). 

215,  Rule  2.  Adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable,  are 
commonly  compared  by  prefixing  unore  and  most  to  the 

positive ;  as,  numerous,  more  numerous,  most  numerous. 

210,  Remauk, — Though  these  rules  indicate  the  prevailing  usage, 
yet  adjectives  of  two  syllables  are  not  unfrequently  compared  by  er 
and  est;  as,  "Our  tenderest  cares;"  "The  commonest  materials;" 
and  some  adjectives  of  one  syllable,  as  loise,  apt,  jit,  etc.,  from  regard 
to  euphony  or  taste,  are  sometimes  compared  by  more  and  most 
Dissyllables  in  le  and  y  are  generally  compared  by  er  and  est ;  as 
as,  ahle,  abler,  ablest.  All  adjectives  in  y  after  a  consonant,  change  y 
into  i  before  er  and  est ;  as,  dry,  dHer,  driest ;  ha/ppy,  happier,  hap- 
picst  (57) ;  but  y  after  a  vowel  is  not  changed  ;  as,  gay,  gayer,  gayest. 

217.  A.  lower  degree  of  a  quality  in  one  object  compared  with . 
another,  and  the  lowest  compared  with  several  others,  is  expressed 


ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVE 


53 


by  prefixing  less  and  least  to  the  positive ;  as,  sweet,  less  stoeet,  least 
sweet.  This,  by  way  of  distinction,  is  sometimes  called  the  compari* 
son  of  diminution,  or  comparison  descending. 

218,  The  meaning  of  the  positive  is  sometimes  diminished  with- 
out employing  comparison,  by  annexing  the  syllable  ish  ;  as  white, 
whitish  ;  block,  blackish.  These  may  be  called  diminutive  adjectives. 
So  also  various  shades,  degrees,  or  modifications  of  quality  are  fre- 
quently expressed  by  connecting  with  the  adjective  such  words  as 
rather,  somewhat,  slightly,  a  little,  too,  tiery,  greatly,  etc.,  and,  in  the 
comparative  and  superlative,  by  such  words  as  much,  far,  altogether, 
by  far,  etc. 

21iX,  Such  adjectives  as  superior,  inferior,  exterior,  interior,  etc., 
though  derived  from  Latin  comparatives,  and  involving  the  idea  of 
comparison,  are  not  considered  the  comparative  degree  in  English, 
any  more  than  such  words  as  preferable,  previous,  etc.  They  have 
neither  the  form  nor  the  construction  of  the  comparative  (963-2). 

Irregular   Co7nparison, 

220,  The  following  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly, 
viz.: 

Positive.  Comparative,  Superlative, 

Good  better  best 

Bad,  evil,  or  ill  worse  worst 

Little  less,  (sometimes  lesser)  least 

Much  or  many  more  most 

Late  later,  (irregular,  latter)  latest  or  last 

Near  nearer  nearest  or  next 

Far  farther  farthest 

JForth  (obsolete)  further  furthest 

Fore  former  foremost  or  first 

Old  older  or  elder  oldest  or  eldest 

221,  1.  Much,  is  applied  to  things  weighed  or  meas- 
\ired ;  many,  to  things  that  are  numbered ;  more  and  7nosty 
to  both. 

2.  Farther  and  farthest  generally  denote  place  or  dis- 
tance ;  as,  "  The  farther  they  went,  the  more  interesting 
was  tlie  scene  f  further  and  furthest  refer  to  quantity  or 
addition ;  as,  "  I  have  nothing  further  to  say.'' 


54  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

3.  Older  and  oldest  are  applied  to  persons  or  things,  and 
refer  to  age  or  duration ;  as,  "  Homer  is  an  older  poet  than 
Virgil ;  "  The  pyramids  are  older  than  the  pantheon." 

4.  Elder  and  eldest  (from  the  obsolete  eld)  are  applied 
only  to  persons  of  the  same  family,  and  denote  priority  of 
birth ;  as,  "  An  elder  brother." 

5.  Later  and  latest  have  respect  to  time ;  latter  and  last, 
to  position  and  order. 

222.  Some  superlatives  are  formed  by  annexing  most, 
sometimes  to  the  comparative,  and  sometimes  to  the  word 
from  which  the  comparative  is  formed ;  as,  upper,  upper- 
most or  upmost,  from  up ;  oiether,  nethermost ;  inner, 
innermost,  or  inmost,  from  in;  hinder,  hindermost,  or 
hindmost,  from  hind  ;  outer,  outermost,  or  utmost,  from  out, 

X 

Adjectives  not  Compared. 

223.  Adjectives  whose  signification  does  not 
admit  of  increase  or  diminution,  can  not  properly  be 
compared.     These  are — 

1.  Numerals  ;  as,  one,  two  ;  third,  fourth;  each,  all, 
S07ne,  etc. 

2.  JProper  adjectives ;  as,  English,  American,  Roman, 

3.  Adjectives  that  denote  fiffure^  sliape,  or  mate- 
rial  /  as,  circular,  square,  wooden,  etc. 

4.  Such  adjectives  as  denote  posture  or  position ; 
as,  perpendicular,  horizontal. 

5.  Definitives  ;  as,  this,  that,  etc. 

6.  Adjectives  of  an  absolute  or  superlative  signi- 
fication ;  as,  true,  perfect,  universal,  chief,  extreme,  infinite, 
complete. 

224.  Remark.— Of  these  last,  however,  comparative  and  superla- 
tive forms  are  sometimes  used,  either  to  give  greater  force  to  the 


ETYMOLOGY  —  ADJECTIVES.  55 

expression,  or  wlien  the  words  are  used  in  a  sense  not  strictly  abso" 
lute  or  superlative.     The  following  are  examples : — 

Extreme. — "  The  extremest  of  evils." — Bacon.  "  The  extreniesi 
verge." — Shakes.  "His  extremest  state." — Spencer.  [So  in  Greek 
iaxnTuTaro^']. 

Chief.—"  Chief  est  of  the  herdsmen."— J5t&?<?.  "  Chief  est  courtier."^ 
Shakes.    "  First  and  chiefest." — Milton.  ' 

Perfect. — "  Having  more  perfect  knowledge  of  that  way,"  i.  e., 
knowledge  nearer  to  perfection. — Bible.  So,  "The  most  perfect 
eociety."^-^.  Everett.    "  Less  perfect  imitations." — Macaulay. 

More  complete,  most  complete^  less  complete,  are  common. 

Parsing  the  Adjective, 

22iy.  In  parsing  an  adjective  fully :  1.  State  its 
class.  2.  Compare,  if  admitting  comparison  (209), 
and  if  not  compared,  so  state  it.  3.  Tell  its  degree 
of  comparison,  if  compared.  4.  The  noun  which  it 
qualilies.  Do  this  always  in  the  same  order  and  in 
the  fewest  words  possible. 

EXAMPLES. 

"  A  toise  son  maketh  a  glad  father." — "  Wisdom  is  more 
precious  than  rubies." — "  The  sluggard  is  2viser  in  his  own 
conceit,  than  seven  men  that  can  render  a  reason." — 
"  Blessed  are  the  pure  in  heart." 

Wise  is  a  common  adjective,  compared  by  er  andes^  (314),  positive, 
and  qualifies  son  (196). 

Glad  is  a  common  adjective  compared  by  er  and  est,  positive,  and 
qualifies  father. 

More  precious  is  a  common  adjective,  compared  by  more  and  mostt 
comparative,  and  qualifies  wisdom  (705,  4). 

Wiser  is  a  common  adjective,  compared  by  er  and  est,  comparative, 
and  qualifies  sluggard  (196)  and  (705,  4). 

Sccen  is  an  adjective  of  quantity,  numeral,  cardinal,  not  compared, 
and  qualifies  men. 

Blessed  is  a  participial  adjective,  compared  by  more  and  most,  posi- 
tive, and  qualifies  men  understood. 


66  EI^GLISHGRAMMAR. 

Pure  is  a  common  adjective,  compared  by  er  and  est,  positive,  and 
qualifies  men  understood. 

226.  Abbreviation". — This  process  may  be  abbreviated 
without  loss,  by  omitting  the  class  (202),  as  of  no  use  in 
Syntax  (584),  and  also  omitting  to  mention  the  degree  of 
comparison  (209),  except  the  comparative  or  superlative, 
taking  it  for  granted,  in  adjectives  compared,  that  it  is  in 
the  positive,  unless  otherwise  stated.  Any  mention  of  de- 
gree, in  adjectives  not  compared,  would  be  improper.  In 
this  way  the  preceding  adjectives  may  be  parsed,  thus: — 

Wise  is  an  adjective,  compared  by  er  and  est,  and  qualifies  son. 

More  precious  is  an  adjective,  compared  by  more  and  most,  com- 
parative, and  qualifies  wisdom. 

Wiser  is  an  adjective,  compared  by  er  and  est,  comparative,  and 
qualifies  sluggard. 

227.  PRELIMIJsTARY   ORAL  EXERCISE. 

What  is  an  adjective  ?  The  pupil  having  given  the  definition  (195) 
in  answer,  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  it,  a  list  of  nouns  may  again 
be  formed  on  the  blackboard  as  directed  (181) ;  and  supposing  the  list 
to  be  man,  liorse,  ajpple,  house,  tree,  hook,  etc.,  the  teacher  may  take 
them  up,  each  in  order,  and  proceed  in  some  such  way  as  the  fol- 
lowing : — 

Man. — Wliat  part  of  speech  is  man  ?  Why  ?  Are  all  men  exactly 
alike  ?  If  not,  mention  some  things  in  which  they  differ.  Ans.  Some 
are  tall;  some  are  short ;  some  old;  some  young;  some  learned; 
some  unlearned;  some  wise ;  sorae  foolish,  etc. 

When  you  say  "  a  tall  man,  a  sJiort  man,  an  old  man,  a  young  man," 
what  is  the  use  of  the  words  tall,  short,  old,  etc.  Ans.  They  are  used 
to  qualify  the  word  "  man,"  by  telling  what  sort  of  a  man  is  meant 
(19(>-1).  What  part  of  speech  are  words  used  to  qualify  nouns? 
Then  what  part  of  speech  are  tall,  short,  old,  young,  etc.  ?  Prefix  an 
adjective  to  each  of  the  nouns  in  the  list  above,  so  as  to  make  sense. 
Prefix  as  many  adjectives  to  each  noun  separately,  as  you  can  think 
of,  to  make  sense ;  thus :  Horse — a  large  horse,  a  smallhorse,  a  young 
horse,  an  old  horse,  etc.  What  part  of  speech  is  large^  small,  young^ 
etc.?    Why? 


ETYMOLOGY  —  ADJECTIVES.  57 

COMPARATIVE  DEGREE. 

Are  all  men  equally  taUf  Ans.  No;  some  men  are  taUer  than 
others.  When  you  say,  "  James  is  taller  than  John,"  in  what  form  or 
degree  is  the  adjective  taller  ?  What  does  the  comparative  degree 
express  (211)?  How  is  the  comparative  degree  formed  ?  When  is  the 
comparative  formed  by  annexing  er?  When,  by  prefixing  more? 
What  is  the  comparative  form  of  tall,  short,  old,  young,  etc.  ?  What 
is  the  comparative  form  of  learned,  unlearned,  foolish,  tirtuous,  etc.? 
Put  the  adjectives  prefixed  to  nouns  in  the  list  above,  in  the  compara- 
tive form. — Form  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain  a  noun,  and 
its  adjective  in  the  comparative  degree. 

SUPERLATIVE  DEGREE. 

When  you  compare  James  with  several  other  persons,  and  find  that 
he  exceeds  them  all  in  tallness,  how  would  you  express  it  ?  Ans.  I 
would  say,  "  James  is  the  tallest."  What  form  of  the  adjective  is 
tallest?  What  does  the  superlative  express?  In  how  many  ways  is 
it  formed  ?  When  by  annexing  est  to  the  positive  ?  When,  by  pre- 
fixing most  ?  What  is  the  superlative  of  taU,  short,  old,  young,  rich, 
poor,  etc.  ? — of  learned,  unlearned,  beautiful,  virtuous,  etc.  ?  Put  the 
adjectives  prefixed  to  the  nouns,  in  the  list  above,  in  the  superlative 
form.  Form  sentences,  in  each  of  which  there  shall  be  one  of  the 
above  nouns,  and  its  adjective  in  the  superlative  degree. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Compare — Bright,  diligent,  thin,  noble,  bad,  pretty, 
fearful,  brave,  warm,  active,  worthy,  cold,  large,  industri- 
ous, affable,  wise,  obedient,  gloomy,  able,  sad,  little,  strong, 
near,  dutiful,  serene,  big,  good,  careless,  hot,  late,  fruitful, 
lovely,  gentle,  pleasant,  sagacious,  prudent. 

Add  to  each  one  of  these  adjectives  a  noun  wlych  it  can  properly 
qualify ;  as,  "A  bright  day,"  "a  diligent  student,"  etc. 

2.  In  what  form  are  the  folloiving  adjectives  ? — Mildest, 
better,  high,  more,  uttermost,  happiest,  worthless,  least, 
whiter,  lowermost,  worse,  cruel,  eldest,  gentle,  magnificent, 
best,  many,  less,  gayest,  peaceful,  virtuous,  sweetest,  evil, 
inmost,  happier,  miserable,  temperate,  useful,  delicate,  hon- 
orable, meek,  proud,  amiable,  morose. 


58  EI^GLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Compare  each  of  these  adjectives. 

To  each  of  these  add  a  noun  which  the  adjectives  can  properly 
qualify. 

3.  In  the  following  phrases,  tell  which  words  are  nouns,  and  which 
are  adjectives.    Parse  as  directed  (182,  194,  225). 

A  good  man ;  a  kind  heart ;  a  clear  sky ;  the  benevolent 
lady;  the  highest  hill;  a  skillful  artist;  an  older  compan- 
ion; man's  chief  concern ;  a  lady's  lap-dog;  most  splendid 
talents;  the  liveliest  disposition;  a  pleasant  temper;  the 
raging  billows ;  temples  magnificent ;  silent  shades ;  excel- 
lent corn;  a  loftier  tower;  a  happier  disposition ;  the  third 
day ;  a  round  ball ;  a  square  table ;  one  good  book  is  better 
than  many  bad  books. 

4.  Take  a  paragraph  in  any  book ;  point  out  the  articles,  nouns, 
and  adjectives.    Parse  them ;  but,  in  nouns,  omit  the  case. 


PRONOUNS. 


r 


228.  A  Bronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a 
noun  ;  as,  ''John  is  a  good  boy ;  he  is  diligent  in 
his  studies." 

229.  The  noun  instead  of  which  a  pronoun  is  used,  is 
called  its  antecedent^  because  the  pronoun  refers  to  it 
as  previously  mentioned,  or  in  some  way  understood  (236). 

230.  Pronoune  of  the  third  person  are  used  in  writing  and  speak- 
ing, to  prevent  the  frequent  and  awkward  repetition  of  the  noun. 
Thus,  without  the  pronoun,  the  above  example  would  read,  "  John  is 
a  good  boy ;  John  is  diligent  in  John's  studies." 

231.  A  pronoun  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  another  pronoun  ; 
as,  "  You  and  /must  attend  to  our  duty."    See  730. 

232.  Pronouns  may  be  divided  into  Personal, 
Itelativey  Interrogative^  and  Adjective, 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PROI^^OUNS. 
Table  of  Pronouns, 


59 


'  Simple .    .    . 

i  I,    thou,  he,  she,  it,  one. 
*  We,  you,        they. 

L  Pebsonal   .     .    .- 

Myself,  thyself,  himself; 

.Compound    .- 

herself,  itself. 
Ourselves,      yourselves, 
themselves. 

Who. 

Sirrvple,    .    .- 

Which. 
That. 

II.  Relative    •    .    -i 

^What. 

no 

( Who(so)ever. 

fjj 

.Compound    . 

\  Which(so)ever. 

O  . 

' . 

(what(so)ever. 

^ 

o 

/Who? 

Ph 

III.  INTEKTIOGATIVE 

I  Which? 
(what? 

My,  thy,  his,  her,    its. 

'Possessive     . 

one's. 
Our,  your,  their. 
'Each. 

Distributive  .- 

Every. 
Either. 

LIV.  Adjective.    .    A 

^  Neither. 

. 

Demonstra- 

(This,  these. 
(That,  those. 

tive  .    .    . 

None,  one. 

.Indefinite.    .- 

Any,   other. 
All,     another. 
^Such,  etc.  (305). 

1.  Personal  Pronouns. 

233,  JPersonal  I^ronouns  are  those  wMch  dis- 
tinguisli  the  person  'by  their  form.  They  are  either 
Simple  or  Compound, 


W  ENGLISH    GKAMMAR. 

Personal  pronouns,  or  pronouns  substantive^  are 

simple  substitutes  for  the  names  of  persons  or  things, 
and  have  the  same  person,  gender,  and  numier  as  the 
nouns  for  which  they  stand. 

Every  personal  pronoun  lias  a  possessive  pronoun  answering  to 
it,  which  is  joined  to  a  noun  in  the  same  way  as  an  adjective  (291.) 

Simple  Personal  Pronouns. 

2S4,  The  simple  personal  pronouns  are  J,  tJwiif 
he^  she^  it;  with  their  plurals,  we^  you^  they, 

J  is  of  the  first  person,  and  denotes  the  speaker ; 
Thou  is  of  the  second,  and  denotes  the  person  addressed; 
He,  she^  it,  are  of  the  third,  and  denote  the  person  or 
thmg  spoken  of  (111). 

235,  The  word  one,  standing  for  a  person  not  named, 
may  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of  indefinite  personal  pronoun ; 
as,  "  One  can  neyer  know,"  etc. 

The  plural  form,  ones,  is  used  in  a  more  definite  sense ;  as,  "  The 
great  ones  of  the  earth." 

236,  1.  The  pronouns  I  and  tliou  denote  the  speaker, 
and  the  person  addressed,  without  previous  mention,  or 
even  knowledge  of  their  names,  the  persons  intended  being 
sufiiciently  indicated  by  their  presence,  or  some  other  cir-* 
cumstance. 

2.  The  pronouns  of  the  third  person  refer  to  some  person 
or  thmg  previously  mentioned,  or  easily  understood  from 
the  context,  or  from  the  nature  of  the  sentence. 

237,  He,  she,  it,  and  they,  are  frequently  used  as 
general  terms  in  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  equivalent  to 
"  the  person,"  etc.,  without  reference  to  a  noun  going  be- 
fore ;  as,  "  He  [the  person]  that  loveth  pleasure  shall  be  a 
poor  man."    "  How  far  is  it  [the  distance]  to  the  city." 

238,  They  is  also  used  in  a  vague  sense  for  "  people ' 


•      ^  ETYMOLOGY  —  PRONOUNS.  61 

in  such  expressions  as  "  They  say,"  [Uke  the  French  on,  or 
the  German  man]. 

239,  The  accidents  of  personal  pronouns,  like 
those  of  nouns  (110),  are  JPerson^  Gender ^  Nam- 
her*,  and  Case,  They  are  thus  inflected  : — 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Nom.             Poss. 

0&/. 

Norn.        Poss. 

Ohj. 

1. 

M.  or  F. 

I                     mine 

me 

We             ours 

us 

2. 

M.  or  F. 

Thou  (244)     thine 

thee 

You  (245)  yours 

you 

iMasc. 

He                 his 

him 

They          theirs 

them 

3. 

<Fem. 

She                hers 

her 

They          theirs 

them 

(Nmt. 

It                   its 

it 

They          theirs 

them 

^ 


Observations  on  Personal  Pronouns, 

24-0,  In  many  Grammars,  the  possessive  of  all  the  pronouns, 

except  Jw  and  it,  has  two  forms,  as  follows :  Mi/  or  mine  ;  thy  or  thine  ; 
Tier  or  hers  ;  our  or  ours  ;  your  or  yours  ;  their  or  theirs.  According  to 
this  arrangement,  the  first  form,  my,  thy,  etc.,  is  always  used  before  a 
noun  denoting  the  object  possessed ;  tha  second  fonn,  mine,  thine,  etc., 
as  referring  to  a  noun  previously  mentioned,  or  evident  from  the  con- 
nection. Both  adjectives  and  possessive  cases  of  nouns  are  used 
either  before  nouns,  or  standing  alone  after  the  verb,  thus : 

This  is  my  house  ,  or,  This  house  is  mine. 

This  is  a  good  house  ;  or.  This  house  is  good. 

This  is  John's  house  ;  or.  This  house  is  John's. 
To  this  classification  there  is  no  important  objection  ;  and  such  as 
prefer  it  may  readily  adopt  it,  though,  for  reasons  assigned  (290),  a 
different  classification  is  here  preferred.     Mine  and  thine  are  some- 
times used,  as  possessives  for  my  and  thy  (293). 

24:1,  Some,  again,  regard  my,  thy,  etc.,  as  the  only  form  of  the 
possessive  case,  and  mine,  thine,  etc.,  not  as  a  possessive  case  at  all, 
but  as  a  substitute  for  the  possessive  case  of  the  pronoun  and  the 
noun  referred  to  together,  and  that  it  is  in  the  nominative  or  objective 
case,  according  as  the  novin  referred  to  would  be,  in  the  full  expres- 
sion ;  thus,  "  Your  book  is  o\^,mine  is  new,"  is  equivalent  to  "  Your 
book  is  old,  my  hook  is  new."  Hence  it  is  inferred,  that  mine  is  not  a 
possessive  case,  but  a  substitute  for  my  book,  and  the  subject  of  is. 
This,  though  plausible,  is  obviously  incorrect.  If,  instead  of  the  pro- 
noun minef  we  substitute  a  noun,  that  noun  must  be  in  the  possessive 


02  El^GLISHGKAMMAR. 

case »  thus,  "  Your  book  is  old,  John's  is  new."  The  construction  in 
these)  ^wo  sentences  being  identical,  if  "  John's  "  is  the  possessive  case, 
so  also  is  "  mine  ;"  and  if  in  the  possessive,  it  can  not  be  the  subject 
of  "  is."  The  mistake  lies  in  considering  mine  a  substitute  for  my 
hook,  whereas  it  really  is  a  substitute  only  for  my,  including  such  a 
reference  to  the  word  hook  in  the  first  part  of  the  sentence,  as  renders 
its  repetition  in  the  second  part  unnecessary.  When  it  is  deemed 
proper  to  express  the  noun  after  the  pronoun,  the  form  mine,  etc., 
must  be  changed  for  my,  etc.  Thus,  we  can  not  say  "  Mine  book,"  but 
"  My  book  ;"  but  we  can  with  equal  propriety  say,  "  John's  book,"  or 
"  The  book  is  John's"    See  Appendix  III. 

242,  1.  In  the  same  manner  may  be  explained,  the  use  of  the 
possessive  after  transitive  verbs  in  the  active  voice,  and  after  prepo- 
sitions ;  thus,  "  James  lost  his  books,  and  I  gave  him  mine,"  meaning 
my  hooks. — "A  picture  of  the  king's,"  is  a  picture  of  (i.  e.  from)  the 
king's  pictures.  So  "  A  book  of  mine,"  is  a  book  of  (from)  my  books. 
"  A  friend  of  yours,"  is  a  friend  of  (from)  your  friends. 

2.  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  though  this  use  of  the  possessive 
after  of  originally  and  strictly  implies  selection,  or  a  part  only,  it  has 
insensibly  come  to  be  used  when  no  such  selection  is,  or  ever  can  be, 
intended.  Thus  we  may  say,  "That  house  of  yours,"  "  that  farm  of 
yours,"  without  intending  to  imply  that  any  other  houses  or  farms 
belong  to  you  ;  and  when  we  say,  "  That  head  of  yours,"  selection  is 
obviously  excluded  by  the  sense. 

243.  In  royal  proclamations,  charters,  editorial  articles, 
and  the  like,  where  there  is  no  individual  responsibility, 
we  is  frequently  applied  to  one  person. 

24i4:,  TIioii  is  now  used  only  in  the  solemn  style — ^in 
addresses  to  the  Deity,  or  to  some  important  object  in 
nature, — or  to  mark  special  emphasis, — or  in  the  language 
of  contempt.  Ye^  the  plural  of  thou,  is  seldom  used 
(except  as  the  subject  of  the  imperative),  and  only  in  the 
solemn  style.  It  is  sometimes  used  as  the  objective  for 
you  J  as,  "  Vain  pomp  and  glory  of  this  world,  I  hate  ye  !" 

24:3,  Yon,  the  common  plural  of  thou,  is  now  used  also  to 
denote  one  person,  but,  even  when  it  does  so,  it  always  takes  a  plural 
verb.  This  usage  has  become  so  fixed  and  uniform,  that  some  emi- 
nent grammarians  contend  for  its  being  regarded  as  singular.    No 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PKONOUN^S.  63 

advantage,  however,  would  be  gained  by  adopting  this  proposal,  and  it 
seems  to  accord  much  more  with  simpUcity,  as  well  as  with  fact,  to 
regard  it  as  a  plural  which  has  come  to  be  used  for  the  singular  by 
the  figure  enallage  (1044,  4).  In  certain  kmds  of  writing  (343),  we 
is  used  in  the  same  way,  and  so  also  is  the  corresponding  pronoun  in 
French,  and  some  other  modern  languages,  in  which,  however,  it  is 
always  regarded  as  a  plural  form. 

24^6.  The  pronoun  it  is  used  in  a  variety  of  ways:— 

1.  Properly  it  is  used  instead  of  a  neuter  noun,  ot 

substantive  phrase;  as,  "Life  is  short;  it  should  be  well 
improved."  "James  is  a  good  scholar,  and  he  knows  it/' 
viz.,  that  he  is  a  good  scholar. 

2.  It  is  used  as  an  indefinite  subject  of  the  verb  to 
Isy  followed  by  a  predicate  in  any  person  or  number ;  as, 
"  It  is  /;"  "  It  is  you  ;"  "  It  is  they,"  etc. 

It  is  used  in  the  same  manner  after  the  verb  to  he,  in 
interrogative  sentences;  as,  "Who  is  itf  "What  is 
it  r  etc. 

3.  It  is  prefixed  as  an    introductory  subject  to 

such  verbs  as  to  he,  to  Mppen,  to  become,  and  the  hke,  refer- 
ring to  an  infinitive  mood,  or  substantive  phrase,  which 
follows  the  verb,  and  is  its  true  subject ;  as,  "  It  is  an  honor 
for  a  man  to  cease  from  strife ;"  i.  e..  To  cease  from  strife 
is  an  honor  for  a  man.  "It  has  been  proved,  that  the 
earth  revolves  on  its  axis  ;"  i.  e..  It,  namely,  that  the  earth 
revolves  on  its  axis,  has  been  proved. 

4.  It  is  used  indefinitely  before  certain  verbs,  to 
denote  some  cause  unknown, — or  general, — or  well  known, 
whose  action  is  expressed  by  the  verb  ;  as,  "  It  rains  ;"  "  It 
snows  ;"  "  It  is  cold,"  etc.  Verbs  before  which  it  is  thus 
used,  are  said  to  be  impersonal  (520). 

5.  It  is  sometimes  used  as  a  mere  expletive;  as, 
"  Come  and  trip  it  as  you  go." 

247.  The    possessives,    hers,    its,    ours,  yours. 


64  ENGLISH    GRAMMA  E. 

their Sf  should  never  be  written  hefs,  ifs,  our^s,  your% 
theifs, 

248.  His  and  its^  before  a  noun,  are  possessive  pro- 
nouns ;  without  a  noun  following,  they  are  the  possessive 
ciise  (292).  Her,  before  a  noun,  is  the  possessive  pronoun; 
without  a  noun,  it  is  the  objective  case. 

Compound  Personal  Pronouns^ 

249.  Myself  {our self ),  thyself  {yourself),  him^ 
self  herself^  itself,  with  their  plurals,  ourselves,  your- 
selves, themselves,  are  called  Compound  JPersonal 
J*ronouns.  They  are  used  in  two  cases — the  nomi* 
native,  and  the  objective.  In  the  nominative  they  are 
emphatic,  and  are  added  to  their  respective  personal  pro- 
nouns, or  are  used  instead  of  them ;  as,  "  I  myself  did  it." 
"  Himself  shall  come."  In  the  objective  they  are  reflexive, 
showing  that  the  agent  is  also  the  object  of  his  own  act ; 
as,  "  Judas  went  and  hanged  Imnself" 

250.  The  simple  pronouns,  also,  are  sometimes  used  in 
a  reflexive  sense  ;  as,  "  Thou  hast  hewed  thee  out  a  sepul- 
chre, as  he  that  heweth  him,  out  a  sepulchre  on  high." — 
Bible. 

251.  Ourselfand  yourself  are  used  as  compounds, 
corresponding  to  ive  and  yoti,  applied  to  an  individual ;  as, 
"We  ourself  will  follow." — Shakes,  "You  must  do  it 
yourself." 

252.  The  possessive  emphatic  or  reflexive,  is  made  by 
adding  the  word  own  to  the  possessives  my,  thy,  his,  her, 
etc.  (295) ;  as,  "  God  created  man  in  his  own  image.* 
"  The  book  is  mine  own^ 

I  Parsing. 

253.  Personal  pronouns  are  parsed  nearly  like 
the  substantives  for  which  they  stand  (182).     Thus, 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PRONOUN^S.  Cr< 

"  I  love '' — /  is  a  pronoun  of  tlie  first  person,  mas- 
culine or  feminine,  singular,  nominative. 

As  an  additional  exercise,  a  reason  may  be  assigned  for  each  state- 
ment, thus : — 

I  is  a,  pronoun, — it  stands  for  the  noun , 

personal, — its  form  determines  its  person. 
first  person, — it  represents  the  speaker. 
Masculine,  or  Feminine, — it  denotes  male  or  female. 
Singular, — it  denotes  but  one. 
Nominative, — subject  (315)  of  love. 

254.  PRELIMINARY   ORAL  EXERCISE. 

What  is  a  pronoun  (228)  ?  What  is  a  personal  pronoun  (233)  ?  In 
the  sentence,  "  John  is  in  the  garden ,  he  says  it  is  full  of  trees,"  for 
what  noun  or  name,  does  the  word  lie  stand  ?  Then  what  part  of 
speech  is  he  ?  Why  ?  For  what  noun  does  the  word  it  stand  ? — then 
what  part  of  speech  is  it  f  Why  ?  What  other  words  stand  instead 
of  nouns  ?    (Write  a  list  of  them  on  the  blackboard.) 

Write  sentences,  each  containing  one  of  these  pronouns,  and  tell 
for  what  noun  it  stands. 

Select  the  personal  pronouns  from  sentences  in  any  reading-lesson, 
or  book,  and  say  for  what  nouns  they  stand. 

EXERCISES  ON"  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

1.  Parse  the  following  list,  as  directed  (253). — I,  thou, 
we,  me,  us,  thine,  he,  him,  she,  hers,  they,  thee,  them,  its, 
theirs,  you,  her,  ours,  yours,  mine,  his,  it; — myself,  our- 
selves, yourself,  himself,  themselves. 

2.  Select  the  personal  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences,  and 
parse  them ;  if  of  the  first  or  second  person,  sttte  what  they  designate ; 
if  of  the  third,  state  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand. 

James  says  he  is  older  than  I ;  but  I  am  taller  than  he. — 
That  book  is  mine;  take  it  and  read  it. — Let  them  do  it 
themselves. — When  you  learn  the  lesson,  come  to  me,  and 
I  will  hear  you  say  it. — They  will  go  when  we  return. — 


66  EKGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Thou  art  the  man. — ^Your  knife  is  sharper  than  mine; 
lend  it  to  me,  if  you  please,  till  I  mend  my  pen. 

3.  Write  sentences,  each  of  wliich  sliall  contain  a  pronoun  in  tlie 
nominative  case — in  the  possessive  case — in  the  objective  case. 

4,  Change  the  following  sentences,  so  that  the  pronoun  it  shall  be 
omitted,  and  the  subject  or  thing  spoken  of  shall  stand  first  (246-4). 

It  is  pleasant  to  see  the  sun.  It  is  criminal  to  deceive. 
It  is  manifest  that  you  have  been  deceived.  It  is  said  that 
the  cholera  has  appeared  in  England.    It  is  easy  to  talk. 

5.  Write  sentences  of  this  kind  both  ways. 


2.    Relative  Pronouns. 

2^5.  A  Melative  Tronoiin  is  one  that  relates 
to,  and  connects  its  clause  with,  a  noun  or  pronoun 
before  it.  The  word  to  which  it  relates  is  called  the 
antecedent  (229) ;  as,  "  The  master  who  taught  us." 

Remark. — The  relative  clause  limits  or  describes  the  noun  to 
which  the  relative  refers. 

2oG»  The  antecedent  of  a  relative  may  be  a  noun — a 
pronoun — an  infinitive  mood — a  clause  of  a  sentence 
(636) — or  any  fact  or  thing  implied  in  it;  as, 

"A  kinf/  ivho  is  just,  makes  his  people  happy;" 

'^He  that  is  wise,  is  wise  for  himself;" 

"  He  who  reads  all  will  not  be  able  to  thinks  without 
tuJiich  it  is  impertinent  to  read;  nor  to  act,  without  'which 
it  is  impertinent  to  think ;" 

"We  are  bound  to  obey  the  Divine  law,  which  we 
can  not  do  without  Divine  aid ;" 

"  The  man  was  said  to  be  innocent,  which  he  was  not." 

2511.  Kelative  pronouns  are  of  two  kinds,  Him-' 
pie  and  Conijjound. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PRONOUNS.  67 

Simple  Relative  Pronouns. 

258,  The  simple  relative  pronouns  are  ivho, 
which,  that,  and  what,  TJiat  and  what  are  inde- 
clinable, and  used  only  in  the  nominative  and  ob- 
jective. 

Who  is  masculine  or  feminine,  and  which  is  mascu- 
line, feminine,  or  neuter.    They  are  inflected  as  follows: — 

SINGULAR  AND  PLURAL.      BLNGULAR  AND  PLURAL. 

Norn.  Who  Wliich 

Po8S.  Whose  Whose 

Ohj  Whom  Which 

2o9,  Who  is  apphed  to  persons  only;  as,  "Tlie  boy 
wlio  reads." 

260,  Which  is  applied  to  inferior  animals,  and  things 
without  hfe;  as,  "The  dog  luMch  barks" — "The  book 
which  was  lost." 

26 1»  This  relative,  as  in  Latin,  sometimes,  for  the  sake  of  greater 
perspicuity,  has  its  antecedent  repeated  after  it ;  as,  "  I  gave  him  a 
knife  with  an  ivory  handle,  icJiich  knife  he  still  has."  The  construc- 
tion, however,  is  inelegant,  and  should  be  avoided. 

262,  Which  is  applied  also  to  nouns  expressing  collections 
of  j}€rsonSf  when  the  reference  is  to  the  collection,  and  not  to  the 
individuals  composing  it ;  as,  "  The  committee  which  was  appointed." 
Also  to  names  of  persons  considered  only  as  a  word ;  as,  "  JVero,  which 
is  only  another  name  for  cruelty." 

263.  Which  has  for  its  possessive  whose;  as,  "A  religion 
whose  origin  is  Divine  ;"  Instead  of  "  whose"  however,  the  objective 
with  of  before  it  is  more  common ;  as,  "  A  religion  the  origin  of  which 
is  Divine." 

204.  That  is  applied  to  both  persons  and  tJiirif/s; 

as,  "The  boy  that  reads;"  "the  dog  that  barks;"  "the  book 
that  was  losV  (748). 

205,  What  is  apphed  to  things  only,  and  is  never 
used  but  when  the  antecedent  is  omitted;  as,  "This  is 
tvhat  I  wanted  " : —  . 


G8  EI^GLISHGRAMMAR. 

206.  In  tills  example,  properly  speaking,  what  neither  indudctk 
the  antecedent,  nor  has  it  understood,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  that 
expression.  If  it  included  the  antecedent,  then  what  would  be  of  two 
cases  at  the  same  time,  which,  if  not  absurd,  is  an  anomaly  not  to  be 
readily  admitted.  If  the  antecedent  were  understood,  it  could  be  sup- 
plied, and  then  the  sentence  would  stand ;  "  This  is  the  thing  what  I 
wanted."  But  this  is  not  English.  The  truth  is,  what  is  a  simple 
relative,  having,  wherever  used,  like  all  other  relatives,  but  one  case ; 
but  yet  it  has  this  peculiarity  of  usage,  that  it  always  refers  to  a  gen- 
eral antecedent  omitted,  but  easily  supplied  by  the  mind,  and  to  which 
belongs  the  other  case  in  the  construction.  The  antecedent  referred 
to  is  always  the  word  " thing "  or  "  things"  or  some  general  or  indefi- 
nite term,  obvious  from  the  sense.  When  that  antecedent  is  expressed, 
the  relative  following  must  be  which  or  that,  but  never  what.  Thus, 
"  This  is  what  I  wanted,"  is  eqmvalent  to  "  This  is  that  ichich,  or  the 
thing  which,  I  wanted."  Hence,  though  it  is  true  that  wliat  is  equiv- 
alent in  meaning  to  that  which,  or  the  thing  which,  yet  the  error  to 
which  this  has  imperceptibly  led,  viz.,  that  what  is  a  compound  rela- 
tive, and  includes  the  antecedent,  should  be  carefully  avoided. — See 
Appendix  IV. 

267.  The  office  of  the  relative  is  twofold:— 

1.  It  is  sometimes  merely  additive  or  descriptive^ 

and  connects  its  clause  with  the  antecedent,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  further  describing,  without  modifying  it;  thus 
used,  it  is  a  mere  connective,  nearly  equivalent  to  arid  with 
a  personal  pronoun  lie,  she,  it,  etc.;  as,  "Light  is  a  body 
ivhich  moves  with  great  celerity  "="  Light  is  a  body,  and 
it  moves  with  great  celerity." 

2.  It  is  more  commonly  restrictive^  and  connects  its 
clause  with  the  antecedent,  in  order  to  modify  or  restrict 
its  meaning.  Thus  used,  the  relative  with  its  clause  is 
equivalent  to  an  adjective  ;  as,  "  Every  thing  ivMch  has  life 
is  an  animal  "="  Every  living  thing  is  nn  animal."  When 
used  in  this  way,  the  relative  can  not  be  resolved  into  and 
with  a  personal  pronoun,  for  we  can  not  say,  "  Every  thing 
is  an  animal,  and  it  has  life." 

26 S.  The  relatives  ivho  and  ivhich  are  used  in  both 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PRONOUNS.  09 

senses.     That  is  used  in  restrictive,  more  commonly  than 
in  descr^<>tive  clauses. 

269.  Which  is  sometimes  used  as  a  demonstrative 
adjective  pronoun  (3^2),  equivalent  to  tliis  or  these,  and 
qualifies  or  limits  the  substantive  following  it  (676) ;  as, 
"  Which  things  are  an  allegory  "= "  These  things  are  an- 
allegory." 

2  7-9.  What  is,  also,  sometimes  used  in  the  same  way ; 
as,  "  What  money  he  earned  was  given  to  his  mother." 

[Remark. — In  English,  a  relative  must  always  be  in  the  same 
sentence  with  its  antecedent,  and,  if  restrictive,  in  close  connection 
with  it.  In  Latin,  the  relative  often  has  its  antecedent  in  a  preceding 
sentence,  and  connected  with  it  by  a  conjunctive  term.  When  this  is 
the  case,  it  should  be  rendered  into  English  by  a  demonstrative,  or 
personal  pronoun.  This  diflFerence  of  idiom  should  be  carefully  marked 
by  classical  students.     See  Lat.  Gr.,  295.     Bullions  and  Morris',  701, 

271'  In  such  sentences  as  the  following — "Shun  such  as  are 
vicious  " — "  Send  such  as  you  have  " — some  grammarians  consider 
the  word  as  a  relative :  in  the  first  example,  as  the  subject  of  are  ; 
and  in  the  second,  as  the  objective,  after  have.  Others,  more  properly, 
regard  it,  in  all  such  sentences,  as  a  conjunction,  and  the  expressions 
as  elliptical — to  be  supplied  thus :  "  Shun  such  as  [those  who]  are 
vicious."  "  Send  such  as  [those  which]  you  have." — See  Appen- 
dix V.  \\ 

Compound  Relative  Pronouns, 

272,  The  relatives  tvho^  whichj  and  ivhat,  with 
eiwr  or  soever  annexed,  are  called  compotmd  rela- 
tives. They  are  used  Instead  of  the  simple  relative  and 
a  general  or  indefinite  antecedent ;  as,  "  Wliosoever  com- 
mitteth  sin  is  the  serv^ant  of  sin;"  that  is,  ^^ Any  one  or 
every  one  who  committeth  sin,"  etc.  "  Whatever  is  evil 
should  be  avoided ;"  that  is,  "  Every  thing  which  is  evil,"  etc. 

They  are  inflected  like  the  simple  relatives  from  which 
they  are  derived ;  but  the  compounds  of  lohich  and  %vhat 
have  no  possessive  case. 


70  ENGLISfiGRAMMAR. 

27s,  Like  the  relative  what,  the  compound  relatives  are  used 
only  when  the  indefinite  antecedent  is  omitted.  Whenever  that  is 
expressed,  the  simple  relative  who,  which,  or  that,  should  be  used  as 
in  the  preceding  examples. 

274:,  It  is  therefore  not  correct  to  say,  either  that  these  relatives 
include  the  antecedents,  and  so  have  two  cases,  or  that  the  antecedent 
is  understood.  The  same  reasoning  that  is  applied  to  the  relative 
wJiat  (266),  is  equally  applicable  to  the  compound  relatives,  only  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  antecedent  referred  to  in  these,  and  to 
which  one  of  the  cases  properly  belongs,  is  always  a  general  or  indefi- 
nite term. 

275-  In  old  writings,  the  antecedent  word  is  sometimes  expressed, 
either  before  or  after  the  compound  relative,  for  the  sake  of  greater 
emphasis  or  precision ;  as,  "  Blessed  is  he,  whosoever  shall  not  be 
offended  in  me." — Eng.  Bible.  "  Whosoever  will,  let  Mm  take  the 
water  of  life."  This  usage,  however,  is  now  nearly  obsolete,  except 
with  the  word  whatever  ;  as,  "  Whatever  you  do,  let  it  be  done  well." 

27 a*  Whoso,  formerly  used  in  the  sense  of  whoever,  or  whoso- 
ever, is  now  obsolete. 

277 *  Whatever,  whatsoever,  whichever,  and  whichsoever,  are  often 
used  before  substantives,  as  a  sort  of  itidefinite  adjective  /  as, 
"  Whatever  course  you  take,  act  uprightly."  When  thus  used,  the 
noun  is  sometimes  placed  between  what,  which,  or  whose,  and  soever; 
as,  "  What  course  soever" — "  Into  whose  house  soever  ye  enter  "  (856). 

Parsing, 

278.  The  relative  is  parsed  "by  stating  its  gender, 
number,  case,  and  antecedent  [the  gender,  number, 
and  person  being  always  the  same  as  those  of  the 
antecedent  (742)] ;  thus  :— 

"  The  boy  who  studies  ivhat  is  useful,  will  improve." 

Who  is  a  relative  pronoun,  masculine,  in  the  nominative 
singular,  and  refers  to  "  boy,"  as  its  antecedent. 

What  is  a  relative  pronoun,  neuter,  in  the  nominative 
singular,  and  refers  to  "  thing,"  or  "  that,"  as  its  antecedent, 
omitted :  if  supplied,  what  must  be  changed  into  which 
(2fJ0)  ;  thus,  the  thing  which,  or  that  tohich. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PRONOUNS.  71 

The  pupil  may  assign  reasons  for  the  statements  made 
in  parsing,  as  exempHfied  (253). 

EXERCISES   01^  RELATIVE   PRONOUN'S. 

1.  Write  on  the  blackboard  a  list  of  nouns,  arranged  in  a  column 
on  the  left  side,  and  write  after  each  its  proper  relative  ;  thus,  "  The 
man — who  ;  "  The  hird — which." 

2.  In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  relative,  and  the  ante- 
cedent or  word  to  which  it  relates.  Also  state  whether  it  is  additive 
or  restrictive  (267)  : — 

A  man  who  is  generous  will  be  honored. — God,  by  whose 
kindness  we  live,  whom  we  worship,  who  created  all  things, 
is  eternal. — That  is  the  book  which  I  lost. — He  who  steals 
my  purse,  steals  trash. — This  is  the  boy  whom  we  met. — This 
is  the  man  that  did  it. — These  are  the  books  that  you 
bought. — The  person  who  does  no  good,  does  harm. — The 
woman  who  was  hurt,  is  well.  —  This  is  the  cat,  that 
killed  the  rat,  that  ate  the  malt,  that  lay  in  the  house  that 
Jack  built. 

3.  In  each  of  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  compound  rela- 
tive— mention  the  antecedent  omitted,  to  which  it  refers.  Insert  the 
antecedent  in  each  sentence,  and  make  the  necessary  change  in  the 
relative  (273) : — 

Whoever  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash. — Whoever  does  no 
good  does  harm. — Whatever  purifies  the  heart,  fortifies  it. 
Whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye  to 
them  also. — ^AYhoever  sins,  will  sufier. — I  love  whoever  loves 
me. — ^Now  whatsoever  God  hath  said  to  thee,  do. — Whose- 
soever sins  ye  remit,  they  are  remitted. 

4.  In  the  following  sentences,  wherever  it  can  be  done,  change  the 
relative  and  antecedent  for  the  compound  relative : — 

Bring  with  you  every  thing  which  you  see. — Any  one 
who  told  such  a  story,  has  been  misinformed. — Any  thing 
that  is  worth  doing  at  all,  is  worth  doing  well. — Any  thing 
that  gives  pain  to  others,  deserves  not  the  name  of  pleas- 
ure.— ^Every  one  who  loves  pleasure,  will  be  a  poor  man. 


^  E  N  G  1. 1  S  H     G  ii  A  AI  il  A  K 


3.    Interrogative  Pronouns. 

279.  Who,  which,  and  what,  when  used  in 
asking  questions,  are  called  .Interrogative  Pro- 
nouns; as,  ''Who  is  there?"  ''Which  will  you 
take  ?"  "  What  did  lie  say «" 

280.  Who  and  which  are  inflected  like  the  rela- 
tive (258). 

281.  In  questions,  ivho  is  equivalent  to  what  per- 
son ;  which  and  ivhat  have  a  noun  following,  to  which, 
like  an  adjective,  they  belong ;  or  tliey  refer  to  one  under- 
stood, but  easily  supplied ;  thus,  "  Who  [what  person]  is 
there?"— "Which  book  will  you  take ?"—" What  [thing] 
did  he  say  ?" 

282.  Who  applies  to  person  only;  which  and 
what,  to  persons  or  things. 

283.  As  applied  to  persons,  who  inquires  for  the  name ; 
which,  for  the  individual ;  what,  for  the  character  or  occu- 
pation ;  as,  "  Who  wrote  that  book  ?" — "  Mr.  Webster." — 
*•  Which  of  them  ?"  ''Noah  Webster."—"  What  is  he  ?"— 
"  A  lexicographer." 

284.  The  same  pronouns  used  responsively,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  a  dependent  clause  (635),  or  in  what  is  called 
the  indirect  question  (i.  e.,  in  a  way  which,  in  an  indepen- 
dent clause,  would  be  a  direct  question),  are  properly 
neither  interrogatives  nor  relatives,  but  a  sort  of  indefi^ 
nite  pronouns  (306).  This  will  be  best  illustrated  by  an 
example : — 

Interrogative. — "  Who  wrote  that  letter  ?" 
Relative. — "  I  know  the  person  who  wrote  that  letter  f 
that  is,  I  am  acquainted  with  him. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PRONOUNS.  73 

Indefinite. — "  I  know  who  wrote  tliat  letter ;"  that  is,  I 
know  by  whom  that  letter  was  written. 

283,  It  is  necessary  to  these  words  being  regarded  as  indefinite— 
1.  That  they  begin  a  dependent  clause  (585) ;  2.  That  they  do  not 
ask  a  question ;  3.  That  an  antecedent  can  not  be  supplied  without 
changing  the  sense ;  4.  That  the  whole  clause  be  either  the  subject  of 
a  verb,  or  the  object  of  a  verb  or  preposition.  These  remarks  will 
apply  to  all  the  following  examples :  "  I  know  ijcho  wrote  that  letter  ?" 
— "  Tell  me  who  wrote  that  letter  ?" — "  Do  you  know  iJcho  wrote  that 
letter?" — "Nobody  knows  who  he  is." — "  Who  he  is  can  not  be 
known." — "  Did  he  tell  you  who  he  is  ?" — "  We  can  not  tell  which  is 
he." — "  I  know  not  what  I  shall  do." — "  It  is  imcertain  to  whom  that 
book  belongs." — "  Teach  me  what  is  truth  and  what  is  error." 

JParsinff. 

280.  Interrogative  pronouns,  in  both  the  direct 
and  the  indirect  questions,  are  parsed^  by  stating 
their  gender,  number,  and  case  ;  thus : — 

"  Who  comes  ?     I  know  not  ivho  comes." 

Who  is  an  interrogative  pronoun,  mascuHne  or  feminine, 
in  the  nominative  singular. 

Who  is  an  indefinite  pronoun  (or  an  interrogative  pro- 
noun used  responsively),  masculine  or  feminine,  in  the 
nominative  singular. 

Reasons  may  be  assigned  for  each  statement,  as  exem- 
plified (253). 

j:XEECISES  ON  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

1.  Point  out  in  which  of  the  following  sentences,  who,  which,  and 
what  are  relatives  ;  in  which,  interrogatives  ;  and  in  which,  indefinites. 

Who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash. — To  whom  did  you 
give  that  book  ? — What  I  do,  thou  knowest  not  now. — 
Wlio  you  are,  what  you  are,  or  to  whom  you  belong,  no  ona 
knows.— What  shall  I  do  ?— Who  built  that  house  ?— Do 
you  know  by  whom  that  house  was  built  ? — Is'  that  the 


74  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

man  who  built  that  house  ? — Which  book  is  yours  ? — Do 
you  know  which  book  is  yours  ? — I  saw  a  book  which  was 
said  to  be  yours. — I  know  which  book  is  yours. — What  in 
me  is  dark,  illumine. — What  is  crooked,  can  not  be  made 
straight. — What  is  wanting,  can  not  be  numbered. — What 
is  wanted  ? — I  know  what  is  wanted. 

2.  Write  sentences,  each  of  whicli  shall  contain  one  of  these  pro- 
nouns  in  one  or  other  of  these  different  senses. 


4.    Adjective  Pronouns. 

287,  Adjective  JPronouns  are  words  used, 
sometimes  like  adjectives,  to  qualify  a  noun,  and 
sometimes  like  pronouns,  to  stand  instead  of  nouns. 

288,  Adjective  Pronouns  are  divided  into  four 
classes :  Possessive^  Distributive,  Demonstra- 
tive and  Indefinite, 

289,  Adjectives  used  as  nouns,  or  with  a  noun  under- 
stood, commonly  take  the  article  the  before  them  (201) ; 
as,  the  young;  the  old;  the  good,  etc.  Adjective  pronouns 
d^ot. 

29 O*  Of  the  adjective  pronouns,  the  JPossessives  (291)  clearly 
have  a  double  character.  As  an  adjective,  they  qualify  a  noun,  and 
as  a  pronoun,  stand  instead  of  a  noun.  The  distributives, 
Demonstratives,  and  Indefinites,  as  adjectives,  qualify  a  noun 
expressed  or  understood,  or  they  stand  instead  of  a  noun,  and  thus 
may  be  regarded  sometimes  as  adjectives,  and  sometimes  as  pronouns. 
Hence  they  are  classed  by  some  grammarians  as  adjectives,  and  called 
prononiifial  adjectives  ;  and  by  others  as  pronouns,  and  called 
adjective  pronouns.  The  latter  classification  and  name  are  here  pre- 
ferred, because  they  have  been  admitted  into  the  grammars  of  almost 
all  languages ;  and  because  a  change  of  established  nomenclature  is 
an  evil  of  so  serious  a  kind,  that  it  should  not  be  incurred  imless  for 
the  most  urgent  reasons.  Still,  it  is  a  matter  of  little  moment,  in 
itself,  whidi  of  these  classifications  is  adopted.    The  principal  jwint 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PRONOUNS.  75 

for  the  learner  is,  to  know  what  words  are  adjective  pronouns  [or 
pronominal  adjectives],  and  their  character  and  i^se;  and  every 
teacher  may  adopt  that  classification  and  name  which  he  prefers. 
For  the  convenience  of  auch  as  prefer  to  consider  them  pronominal 
adjectives,  they  are  classed  with  adjectives  (207). 

Possessive  Adjective  Pronouns.  • 

291.  The  Possessive  Pronouns  are  such  as  de- 
note possession.  They  are  myy  thy,  Ms,  her,  its, 
— our,  your,  their. 

One's,  in  modem  usage,  has  the  office  and  construc- 
tion of  a  possessive  pronoun ;  as,  one  can  not  believe  one^s 
senses.     This  form,  though  common,  is  not  to  be  admired. 

292.  The  possessive  pronouns  are  derived  from  the  personal,  and 
comhine  the  oflBce  of  the  adjective  and  pronoun,  for  they  always 
limit  one  noim  denoting  the  object  possessed,  and  stand  instead  of 
another  denoting  the  possessor.  They  agree  with  the  possessive  case 
of  the  personal  pronoun  in  meaning,  but  differ  from  it  in  construction. 
The  possessive  pronoun,  like  the  adjective,  is  always  followed  by  its 
noun  ;  as,  "  This  is  mp  book  ;"  the  possessive  case  of  the  personal  is 
never  followed  by  a  noun,  but  refers  to  one  known  or  previously  ex- 
pressed ;  as,  "  This  book  is  mine."  The  possessive  case  of  noims  is 
used  both  ways  ;  as,  "  This  is  John's  book ;"  or,  "  This  book  is 
John's." 

293.  Formerly  tnine  and  thine  were  used  before  a  vowel,  or 
the  letter  h,  instead  of  my  and  thy ;  as,  "  Blot  out  all  mine  iniqui- 
ties ;"  "  Commune  with  t/iine  heart."    This  form  is  still  in  use. 

294.  HiSf  her,  and  its,  when  followed  by  a  substantive,  are 
possessive  pronouns  :  not  followed  by  a  substantive,  ?iis  is  the  posses- 
sive case  of  he  ;  her,  the  objective  case  of  she  ;  and  its,  the  possessive 
case  of  it.  In  the  English  Bible,  his  is  neuter  as  well  as  masculine, 
and  is  used  where  its  would  now  be  used.  See  Proa,  xxiii.  81 ;  Is. 
Ix.  22. 

295.  Own  is  not  used  as  a  possessive  by  itself,  but  is  added  to 
the  possessive  pronouns,  or  to  the  xx)ssessive  case  of  nouns,  to  render 
the  possession  expressed  by  them  emphatic ;  as,  "  My  own  book  ;" 
"  The  boy's  omn  book."    Own  is  properly  an  a^ective,  but  is  by  som« 


76  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR, 

grammarians  erroneously  parsed  as  part  of  the  possessive.  The  pos- 
sessive pronoun,  with  own  following  it,  may  have  its  substantive 
understood ;  as,  "  This  book  is  my  own." 

Distributive  Adjective  I*ro7iouns, 

296.  The  Distributive  Pronouns  represent  ob- 
jects' as  taken  separately.  They  are  each,  every, 
either,  neither, 

297 •  Each  denotes  two  or  more  objects  taken  sepa- 
rately. 

298*  Every  denotes  each  of  more  than  two  objects 
taken  individually,  and  comprehends  them  all. 

299*  Hither  means  one  of  two,  but  not  both.  It  is 
sometimes  used  for  each ;  as,  "  On  either  side  of  the 
river." 

300»  Neither  means  not  either. 

301.  The  distributives  are  always  of  the  third  person 
singular,  even  when  they  relate  to  the  persons  speaking,  or 
to  those  spoken  to  ;  as,  "  Each  of  tis — each  of  you — each 
of  them — has  his  faults." 

Denionstrative  Adjective  Pronouns. 

302.  The  Demonstrative  Pronouns  point  out 
objects  definitely.  They  are  this,  that,  with 
their  plurals,  these,  those  (692-694). 

The  when  emphatic  has  the  force  of  a  demonstrative  ; 
as,  "  That  is  the  man." 

303*  Yon  and  which,  before  a  noun,  seem  mors 
properly  to  belong  to  this  class  of  words  than  to  any 
other;  as,  "Yon  trembling  coward;"  "Yon  tall  cliff;" 
"  Which  things  are  an  allegory  f="  These  things,"  etc. 

304:,  Fomner  and  latter.^  first  and  last  with  the  pre- 
fixed— though  often  used  like  that  and  this — referring  to 
words  contrasted,  are  properly  adjectives  (201). 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PHONOUI^'S.  77 

Indefinite  Adjective  Pronouns, 

303,  The  Indefinite  Pronouns  designate  objects 
indefinitely.  They  are  none,  any,  all,  such, 
tvhole,  soine,  both,  one  (used  indefinitely),  other, 
another.    The  three  last  are  declined  lie  nouns. 

306,  To  these  may  be  added,  no,  much,  many, 
few,  several,  and  the  like ;  also,  who,  which,  and 
ivhat,  used  responsively  (284). 

307*  One,  denoting  a  definite  number,  is  a  numeral  adjective 
(204) ;  as,  "  One  man  is  sufficient."  But  one,  referring  indefinitely  to 
an  individual,  is  an  indefinite  pronoun.  Thus  used,  with  its  noun 
following,  it  is  indeclinable  like  the  adjective,  as,  "  One  man's  interest 
is  not  to  be  preferred  to  another's."  Without  its  noun  following, 
it  is  either  singular  or  plural,  and  is  declinable,  like  the  substantive  ; 
as.  "  One  is  as  good  as  another."  "  He  took  the  old  bird,  and  left  the 
young  07ies."  The  same  remark  is  applicable  to  the  indefinites, 
other  and  anotJier. 

The  expressions  the  one — the  other,  denoting  contrast  (692), 
have  the  singular  form  only  ;  but  they  sometimes  refer  to  antecedent 
words  denoting  more  than  one,  regarded,  however,  either  distribu- 
tively  or  as  a  class ;  thus :  "  For  that  which  befalleth  the  sons  of  men, 
befalleth  beasts — as  the  one  dieth,  so  dieth  the  other." — Eccl.  iii.  19. 
See  also  Pliilippians,  'i.  16.  For  these  words  the  French  have  a  plural 
form,  les  uns — les  autres,  literally,  the  ones — the  others. 

308,  None  \pio  one]  is  used  in  both  numbers ;  and  is 
never  followed  by  a  substantive;  as,  "None  is  so  rude;" 
"  Among  none  is  there  more  sobriety." 

309,  Another  is  a  compound  of  the  article  an  and 
other;  sometimes  written  separately,  an  other, 

310,  Some  is  used  with  numerals,  to  ^igm^j  aloiit ; 
as,  "  Some  fifty  years  ago."    This  should  not  be  imitated. 

311,  The  expressions,  each  other,  and  one  another,  form 
what  may  be  called  reciprocal  pronouns,  and  express  a  mutual  rela- 
tion between  difierent  persons.  They  have  this  peculiarity  of  construc- 
tion, that  the  first  word  of  each  pair  is  in  the  nominative,  in  apposition 
with  the  plural  subject,  which  it  distributes  ;  and  the  second,  in  the 
objective,  governed  by  the  transitive  verb  or  preposition  ;  as,  "  They 


78  ENGLISH     GEAMMAR. 

loved  each  other"  i.  e. ;  They  loved  each  the  other;  "  They  wrote  to 
one  another,"  i.  e.,  one  to  another  (673).  Each  other  applies  to  two ; 
one  another,  to  more  than  two. 

312.  Some  of  these  indefinites,  and  words  of  similar  sigTiification, 
are  sometimes  used  adverbially  with  the  comparative  degree ; 
as,  "  Are  you  any  better  ?"  "  I  am  some  better ,"  "  He  is  none  the 
better — all  the  better,"  i.  e. ;  "Are  you  better  in  any  degree  ?"  etc. 

Parsing, 

313,  Adjective  Pronouns  are  parsed  by  stating 
the  class  to  which  they  belong,  and  the  word  which 
they  qualify,  thus : — 

"  Every  day  brings  its  own  duties." 

Every  is  a  distributive  adjective  pronoun,  qualifying 
«  day." 

Its  is  a  possessive  adjective  pronoun,  emphatic,  quahfy- 
ing  "  duties." 

[Own  is  a  dependent  adjective  ;  joined  with  its,io  render 
the  possession  expressed  emphatic  (295)  ]. 

EXERCISES   Oiq-   ADJECTIVE  PROKOUKS. 

1.  Point  out  the  adjective  pronouns  in  the  following  phrases  and 
sentences,  and  parse  them ; — 

Every  man  is,  to  some  extent,  the  architect  of  his  own 
fortune. — Do  good  to  all  men — ^injury  to  none. — All  things 
come  alike  to  all. — Your  own  friend,  and  your  father's 
friend,  forsake  not. — This  one,  or  that  one,  will  answer  my 
pui-pose ;  both  are  good. — Some  men  love  their  money  more 
than  their  honor. — Every  one  of  us  has  his  weak  points 
(301). 

PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES  OJT  PROKOUKS. 

In  the  following  phrases  and  sentences,  point  out  the  pronouns,  and 
parse  them — each  as  already  directed : — 

Train  up  a  child  in  the  way  he  should  go,  and  when  he 
is  old,  he  will  not  depart  from  it. — Kemember  now  thy 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PROl^OUNS.  79 

Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth. — He  is  an  object  of  pity, 
who  can  not  respect  himself. — Feeble  are  all  those  pleasures 
in  which  the  heart  has  no  share. — You  may  read  the  lesson 
yourself. — John  and  he  lost  themselves  m  the  woods. — You 
and  he  may  divide  it  between  you. — You  and  she  and  I 
will  divide  it  among  ourselves. 

i:XERCISES  Oiq-  ALL  THE  PRECEDIN-G  PARTS   OF  SPEECH. 

In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  nouns,  articles,  adjectives 
and  pronouns,  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur,  and  parse  them  : — 

My  son,  forget  not  my  law ;  but  let  thy  heart  keep  my 
commandments:  For  length  of  days,  and  long  life,  and 
peace,  shall  they  add  to  thee. — Let  not  mercy  and  truth 
forsake  thee  :  bind  them  about  thy  neck,  write  them  upon 
the  table  of  thy  heart. — Honor  the  Lord  with  thy  substance, 
and  with  the  first-fruits  of  all  thine  increase :  So  shall  thy 
barns  be  filled  with  plenty,  and  thy  presses  shall  burst  out 
with  new  wine. — Happy  is  the  man  that  findeth  Wisdom. — 
Length  of  days  is  in  her  right  hand,  and  in  her  left  hand, 
riches  and  honor. — Her  ways  are  ways  of  pleasantness,  and 
all  her  paths  are  peace. — The  sluggard  will  not  plow  by 
reason  of  the  cold ;  therefore  shall  he  beg  in  harvest,  and 
have  nothing. — The  hand  of  the  diligent  maketh  rich. 


THE  VERB. 

314,  A  Verb  is  a  word  used  to  express  the  act^ 
heing^  or  state  of  its  subject  (315) ;  as  ''  John  runs  f^ 
' '  He  is  loved  /"  "  The  boy  sleeps  ;  Grass  is  green. ' ' 
Hence — 

A  word  that  expresses  the  act,  leing,  or  state  of  a  person 
or  thing,  is  a  Verb.  Thus,  we  say,  runs  is  a  verb,  because 
it  expresses  the  act  of  JohUy  etc. — See  Appendix  VIL         ^ 


80  EifGLISHGRAMMAR. 

315.  The  subject  of  a  yerb  is  that  person  or  thln^, 
whose  act,  hemg,  or  state,  the  verb  expresses.  Thus,  in  the 
preceding  example,  "  runs,"  expresses  the  act  of  "  Jo/m" — 
"is  loved,"  the  state  of  "Ae,"  as  the  object  acted  upon  (3G9) 
— "  sleeps,"  the  state  of  "  loi/^ — and  "  is  "  affirms  the  exist- 
ence of  the  quality  '^  green^'  in  grass.  In  like  manner,  in  the 
sentences,  ^"^  Let  Mm  come  ;"  "  I  saw  a  man  cutting  wood  ;" 
*'/ef'  expresses  the  act  of  thou  understood,  denoting  the 
pei^on  addressed — " come"  the  act  of  " liim,'^  and  " cutting'^ 
the  act  of  ''manr  (760, 762). 

Classification  of  Verbs, 

\  316.  1.  In  relation  to  their  rueanhig  and  of- 
fice in  a  sentence,  Verbs  are  of  three  kinds,  Trans- 
itivCf  Intransitive^  and  Attributive.* 

This  division  corresponds  with  the  three  forms  of  sentences  as  pre- 
sented in  Introduction,  page  2. 

2.  In  relation  to  their  form,  they  are  divided  into 
three  classes,  Megular,  Irregular ^  and.  Defect- 
ive. 

3.  In  the  formation  of  compound  tenses,  they  are 
distinguished  as  Principal  and  Auxiliary. 

317.  A  Transitive  verb  expresses  an  act  done 
by  one  person  or  thing  to  another ;  as,  ''  James 
sir  [Ties  the  table  ;"  ''The  table  is  struck  by  James" 
(367).     [See,  also,  319,  Eemark.] 

31H.  An  Intransitive  verb  expresses  the  being 
or  state  of  its  subject,  or  an  act  not  done  to  another ; 
as,  "lam/"  ^^'Rq  sleeps  f^  "Yon  run.^^ 


*  The  division  of  verbs  into  transitive  and  intransitive  has  been  so 
generally  adopted  and  approved  by  grrammarians,  that  the  aftribn- 
tive  verb  may  be  regarded  as  one  form  of  the  iutra^isitive  verb. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS.  81 

319,  An  attributive  verb  asserts  and  connects 
an  attribute  with  its  subject ;  as,  '^  Snow  is  white ;" 
''  Man  is  mortal." 

The  term  attribute  is  here  used  to  signify  a  quality  or  other 
limitation  asserted. 

Verba  otherwise  intransitive  become  attributive  when  the  sense  is 
incomplete  without  an  attribute  ;  as,  "  It  looks  round;"  "  It  appears 
new." 

Remahk. — An  analysis  of  the  passive  voice,  separating  the  partici- 
ple from  the  verb  to  be,  will  exhibit  the  latter  as  an  attributive  verb, 
and  the  former  as  an  attribute  of  its  subject ;  as, 

Snow  is  white. — John  is  a  scholar. — He  is  hurt. 

Established  usage,  however,  makes  it  desirable  to  retain  the  dis- 
tinction of  passive  voice  of  transitive  verbs. 

320a,  In  this  division.  Transitive  (passing  over)  verbs  include 
all  those  which  express  an  act  that  passes  over  from  the  actor  to  an 
object ;  or  the  meaning  of  which  has  such  a  reference  to  an  object,  as 
to  render  the  expression  of  it  necessary  to  complete  the  sense ;  as, 
"He  LOVES  us;"  "IwKARyou;"  "  James  liESEMiBi^s  his  brother ;" 
"He  HAS  a  book." 

32 Oh.  These  three  classes  of  verbs  may  be  thus  distinguished  : — 

1.  Transitive  verbs  in  the  active  voice,  require  an  object  after 
them  to  complete  the  sense ;  as,  "  James  stnhes  the  table.  "  In- 
transitive verbs  do  not  require  an  objec*^  or  any  other  word  after 
them ;  but  the  sense  is  complete  without  it ;  as,  "  He  sits ;"  "  You 
ride;"  "  The  wind  blows;"  "  The  wheel  turns."  Attributive  verbs 
require  after  them  to  complete  the  sense,  some  word  or  phrase,  not  an 
object,  to  limit  or  explain  the  subject;  as,  "  Man  is  mortal." 

3.  As  the  object  of  a  transitive  active  verb  is  in  the  objective  case, 
any  verb  which  makes  sense  with  me,  thee,  him,  her,  it,  them,  after  it, 
is  transitive. 

When  a  verb  in  the  active  voice  has  an  object,  it  is  transitive  : 
when  it  has  not  an  object,  it  is  intransitive  or  attributive. 

3.  In  the  use  of  transitive  verbs,  three  things  are  always  implied 
— ^tlie  actor,  the  act,  and  the  object  acted  upon :  in  the  use  of  the 
intransitive  verbs  there  are  only  two — the  subject,  and  the  being, 
state,  or  act,  ascribed  to  it — in  the  use  of  the  attributive  verbs, 
there  are  three — ^the  subject,  the  assertor  (verb)  and  attribute- 


B2  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

S21,  Intransitive  verbs  are  sometimes  rendere(i 
transitive — 

1.  By  the  addition  of  another  word ;  as,  intransitive,  "  I 
laugh;  transitive,  "I  laugh  at"  (375). 

2.  "When  followed  by  a  noun  of  the  same,  or  similar 
Bignification,  as  an  object;  as,  intransitive,  "I  runf 
transitive,  "  I  ru7i  a  race." 

322,  The  same  verbs  are  sometimes  used  in  a  transitive, 
and  sometimes  in  an  intransitive  sense.  Thus,  in  the 
sentence,  "  Charity  thinheth  no  evil,"  the  verb  is  transitive. 
In  the  sentence,  "  Think  on  me,"  it  is  intransitive. 

323,  So  also  verbs,  really  transitive,  are  used  intransitively,  when 
they  have  no  object,  and  the  sense  intended,  being  merely  to  denote 
an  exercise,  is  complete  without  it.  Thus,  when  we  say,  "  That  boy 
reads  and  writes  well  " — "  reads  "  and  "  writes  "  are  really  transitive 
verbs  ;  because,  a  person  who  reads  and  writes,  must  read  and  write 
something.  Yet,  as  the  sense  is  complete  without  the  object,  nothing 
more  being  intended  than  simply,  "  That  boy  is  a  good  reader  and 
writer,"  the  verbs,  as  here  used,  are  intransitive. 

324,  PRELIMIl^ARY  ORAL  EXERCISE. 

When  we  say,  "  John  runs,"  what  part  of  speech  is  John  ? — ^Why  ? 
Wliat  is  the  use  of  runs  in  the  sentence  ?  It  tells  what  John  does. 
Is  what  a  person  or  thing  does,  the  act  of  that  person  or  thing  ? 
What  part  of  speech  are  words  that  express  the  act  of  a  person  or 
thing  ?  Verbs.  Then  what  part  of  speech  is  runs  ? — Why  ?  Of 
what  is  it  that  verbs  express  the  act,  being,  or  state  ?  Of  their  sub- 
ject. Whose  act  does  runs  express  ?  Then  what  is  John  to  the  verb 
runs  ?  When  you  say,  "  John  runs,"  does  it  mean  that  he  does  any- 
thing to  another  ?  What  sort  of  verbs  express  an  act  not  done  to 
another  ?  What  kind  of  a  verb,  then,  is  runs  ?  If  you  say,  "  John 
cuts  wood,"  wliich  word  tells  what  John  does  ?  Then  what  part  of 
speech  is  cuts  f    Is  it  transitive  or  intransitive  ?    Why  ? 

EXERCISES. 
1.  In  the  following  sentences,  tell  which  words  are  verbs,  and  why 
— ^which  are  transitive,  and  why — which  are  intransitive,  and  why  ?— 
which  are  attributive,  and  why  ? 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS.  83 

fhe  boy  studies  grammar. — The  girls  play. — Grass  grows 
m  the  meadows.  The  farmer  ploughs  his  field,  and  sows 
hifcf  gi'ain. — Victoria  is  queen  of  England. — Romulus  built 
Eome. — The  sun  shines. — Honey  is  sweet. — The  winds 
blow. — The  tree  fell. — Bring  your  books,  and  prepare  your 
lessons. — The  apple  tastes  sour. — Have  you  recited  ? — Who 
read  last? — God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth. — 
Columbus  discovered  America. 

2.  Write  a  list  of  nouns,  or  names  of  persons  or  of  things,  in  a 
column  on  the  left  side  of  the  blackboard  ;  write  after  each,  a  word 
or  words  which  tell  something  that  each  of  them  does  or  is;  tell  what 
part  of  speech  that  word  is,  and  why  :  if  a  verb,  whether  transitive, 
intransitive,  or  attributive,  and  why  ? 

Formation  of  Tenses. 

32o.  In  respect  of  form,  verbs  are  divided  into  Regular, 
Irregular,  and  Defective, 

326*  A  JRegular  verb  is  one  that  forms  its  past 
tense  (415)  in  the  indicative  mood  (376)  active  (366), 
and  its  past  participle  (459),  by  adding  ed  to  the 
present;  as,  present,  aci  j  past,  acted;  past  participle,  acted. 

Note. — Verbs  ending  in  e  mute,  drop  e  before  ed  ;  as  love,  loved, 
loved  (66).    See  494. 

327.  An  Irregular  verb  is  one  that  does  not  form 
its  past  tense  in  the  indicative  active,  and  its  past  par- 
ticiple, by  adding  ed  to  the  present ;  as,  present,  write; 
past,  wrote  ;  past  participle,  written, 

328.  A  Defective  verb  is  one  in  which  some  of  the 
parts  are  wanting.  To  this  class  belong  chiefly  Auxiliary 
and  Lnpersonal  verbs. 

Auxiliary  Verbs, 

320,  Auxiliary  (or  helping)  verbs  are  those,  by  the 
help  of  which  other  verbs  are  inflected.     They  are,  do. 


84  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

have,  he; — shall,  will; — may,  can,  must; — and, 
except  be,  they  are  used  only  in  the  present  and  the  past 
tense;  thus: — 

Present.  Do,    have,  shall,     will,       may,      can,     must 
Fast,       Did,   had,    should,  would,  might,  could, 

330.  JBe,  do,  and  have,  are  also  principal  verbs,  and, 
as  such,  belong  to  irregular  verbs  (512).  Be  is  used  as  an 
auxiliary  in  all  its  parts  (354). 

For  the  inflection  of  auxiliaries  with  the  principal  verb,  see  494, 
507,  and  516. 

The  Use  of  Auxiliaries. 

331.  Some  verbs,  now  used  as  auxiliaries  only,  were  probably 
at  first  independent  verbs,  and  combined  syntactically  with  the  fol- 
lowing verb,  in  the  infinitive — the  sign  to  being  in  process  of  time 
omitted,  as  it  now  is  after  such  verbs  as  see,  hear,  feel,  etc.  (877) ;  thus, 
"  I  can  [to]  do  " — "  They  will  [to]  write  " — "  We  could  [to]go,"  etc. ; 
and  some  grammarians  contend  that  they  should  be  so  considered 
still  (381). 

332.  Shall f  tvill,  may,  can,  and  their  past  tenses,  should, 
would,  etc.,  as  auxiliaries,  retain  the  personal  endings  of  the  second 
person  singular;  thus,  shall,  wilt,  mayst,  canst — shouldst,  wouldst, 
mightst,  couldst.  But  in  their  present  they  do  not  retain  the  personal 
ending  of  the  third  person  singular  ;  thus,  we  say,  he  shall,  will,  may, 
can — not  he  shalls,  wills,  mays,  cans.  This  will  be  seen  by  their  use 
in  the  inflection  of  verbs. 

333.  Do  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  present  tense,  and  did  in 
the  past,  to  render  the  expression  emphatic ;  as,  "  I  cZo  love  " — "  I  did 
love."  Also  when  the  verb  in  these  tenses  is  used  interrogatively,  or 
negatively;  as,  "  Z^o^s  he  study  ?"—"  He  does  not  study."— "i)*(Z  he 
go  '?" — "  He  did  not  go." — I)o  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  second 
person  singular  of  the  imperative  ;  as,  "  Do  thou  love." 

334.  Have  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  present-perfect  tense, 
and  had  in  the  past-perfect. 

For  further  remarks  upon  the  analysis  of  compound  tenses,  with 
do  and  have  as  auxiliaries,  see  Appendix  IX. 


ETYMOLOCfY  —  AUXILIARIES.  85 

Shall  and  Will — Should  and  Would.* 
S3S,  Shall,  primarily  and  strictly,  denotes  present  obligation  ; 
as,  "  I  shall  go,"  i.  e.,  I  am  under  obligation  to  go  ;  and  tvlll,  pre- 
sent inclination,  purpose,  or  volition  ;  as,  "  I  will  go,"  i.  e..  It  is  my 
purpose  to  go,  (I  will  to  go) ;  from  wliicli  the  futurity  of  the  act,  etc., 
is  naturally  inferred.  But,  as  auxiliaries,  the  primary  signification  is 
nearly  lost  sight  of,  and  they  are  used  to  denote  futurity — still  modi- 
fied, however,  in  their  use,  by  their  primary  signification.  They  are 
usually  distinguished  as  follows  : — 

Shall  and  Will,  expressing  kesolution,  purpose,  etc. 

330.  Will  denotes  the  purpose,  resolution,  or  inclination,  of  a 
person,  in  reference  to  his  own  acts  ;  and  shall,  his  purpose,  etc.,  in 
reference  to  the  acts  of  others  over  whom  he  has  authority  or  power. 
As  the  purpose  expressed  may  be  that  of  the  speaker,  of  the  person 
addressed,  or  of  the  person  spoken  of,  hence  will  arise  the  three  fol- 
lowing forms,  viz. : — 

First  Form. — Expressing  the  resolution  of  the  speaker.  It  is 
my  purpose  or  intention  that — I  will  write — you  shaU  write — he  shall 
write.  Or,  without  a  preceding  clause  :  I  wiU  write — ^you  shall  write 
— he  shall  write. 

Second  Form. — Expressing  the  resolution  of  the  person  addressed. 
It  is  your  purpose,  etc.,  that — I  shall  write — you  mill  write — ^he  shall 
write. 

Third  Form. — Expressing  the  resolution  of  the  person  spoken  of. 
It  is  his  purjxjse,  etc.,  tJnat — I  shall  write — you  shall  write — he  (him- 
self) icUl  write— he  (another)  shaZl  write. 

The  second  and  third  forms  can  not  be  used  without  a  preceding 
clause. 

337 »  Hence  it  is  manifest  that  will  expresses  the  purpose,  resolve 
tion,  promise,  etc.,  of  the  subject  of  the  verb.     Thus  : — 

I  will  go,  '\  i         My  resolution,  etc. 

Thou  icilt  go,         >•     expresses     •<         Thy  resolution,  etc 
He  vyill  go,  )  (         His  resolution,  etc. 

338,  Fixed  purpose  or  determination,  however,  is  expressed  in  a 
more  positive  and  absolute  manner  in  the  first  person  by  shall  than  by 


*  Pupils  may  be  required  to  analyze  these  as  other  compound 
tenses  of  the  verb,  giving  the  distinctive  meaning  of  each  part.  Such 
an  exercise  will  tend  to  produce  critical  accuracy  in  the  use  of  these 
auxiliaries. 


88  EKaLISH    GRAMMAR. 

tcill,  because  in  this  way,  the  person,  an  it  were,  divests  himself  of 
will,  and  puts  himself  entirely  at  the  disposal  of  another.  Thus,  a 
person  may  say,  "  I  shall  go,  though  much  against  my  inclination." 

For  this  reason,  shall  is  more  polite  and  respectful  in  a  promise, 
and  more  offensive  in  a  threat,  than  will. 

Interrogatively. 
339,  In  asking  questions,  these  auxiliaries,  in  this  sense,  are  used 
with  reference  to  the  will  of  the  second  person,  to  whom  a  question  is 
always  supposed  to  be  addressed,  and  hence  are  used  as  in  the  second 
of  the  above  forms  ;  thus — 

S/iall  I  write  ?    Will  you  write  ?    8h<iU  he  write  ? — Equivalent  to — 
Is  it  your  purpose  that  I  sJiall  write  ? — you  tcill  write  ? — he  shaU 
Write? 

Shall  and  Will  expressing  futukity. 

340*  In  regard  to  simple  futurity,  the  use  of  shall  and  tvill  is 

directly  the  reverse  of  what  it  is  in  the  expression  of  resolution  :  that 

is,  will  takes  the  place  of  shall,  and  shall  takes  the  place  of  will.    In 

other  words,  when  a  person  in  reference  to  himself  foretells  what  is 

future,  shall  is  used  ;  and  in  reference  to  others,  will  is  used.    Thus — 

First  Form. — I  think  that  I  shall  go — that  thou  wilt  go — that  he 

will  go.    Or,  without  a  preceding  clause :  I  aiiaZl  go — thou 

wUt  go — he  will  go. 

Second  Form. — You  think  that  I  wiU  go— that  you  shaU  go— that 

he  will  go. 
Third  Form. — He  thinks  that  I  will  go — ^that  you  wiU  go — ^that  he 

(himself)  ahaU  go — that  he  (another)  will  go. 
34:1,  But  when  the  thing  foretold  is  regarded,  either  as  pleasing, 
or  repugnant,  shall  is  used  with  reference  to  the  first  person,  even 
when  others  are  represented  as  foretelling ;  as — 

You  seem  to  think     )  , ,    ,  j     I  shall  recover. 

He  seems  to  fear        )  (I  shall  not  recover. 

Interrogatively  respecting  the  future, 

342,  Shall  is  used  interrogatively  in  the  first  and  the  second 
person,  and  tvill  in  the  third  ;  as,  "  Shall  I  arrive  in  time  ?" — "  ShaU 
you  be  at  home  to-morrow  ?" — "  Will  your  brother  be  there  ?" 

343,  Shall  is  used,  instead  of  tdll,  after  the  conjunctions  if,  pro- 
vided, though,  unless,  etc. — the  adverbs  when,  while,  until,  after,  before, 
etc. — and  also  after  whosoemr,  or  a  relative  pronoun  in  a  restrictive 


ET  YMOLOG  Y>.^AUXILIARIES.  87 

clause  (267-2) ;  as,  "  If  thoy  sTiaU  enter  into  my  rest"—"  When  he 
%haU  appear" — "  There  is  nothing  covered  which  shaU  not  be  ro' 
vealed" — "  Whoever  shall  put  away  his  wife." 

344*  Should,  the  past  tense  of  shall,  and  ivoiild,  the  past  tense 
of  vyill,  are  auxiliaries  of  the  past  potential ;  and,  in  dependent  clauses, 
are  used  in  the  same  manner  after  a  past  tense,  that  sJmll  and  will  are 
used  after  the  present  or  future.  Hence,  in  the  preceding  examples 
(336  to  338),  if  the  verb  in  the  preceding  clause  is  put  in  past  time, 
should  will  take  the  place  of  shall,  and  would,  the  place  of  vnll,  in  the 
dependent  clause  ;  thns — 

First  Form. — It  was  my  purpose  that  I  wotUd  write — ^you  should 
write — ^he  should  write. 

So  also  in  the  other  forms  :  but  when  there  is  no  dependence  on  a 
proceding  clause,  these  words  will  be  used  as  in  the  first  form. 

Mat/,  Can,  Must^Might,  Could— To  he, 
345»   May  denotes  present  liberty  or  permission ;  carif  pr(»sent 

ability  ;  and  tnast,  present  obligation  or  necessity.    They  are  used 

fts  auxiliaries  in  the  present  potential,  to  express  these  ideas. 

340.   ]May  sometimes  denotes  mere  possibility ;  as,  "  He  may 

write,  perhaps" — "  It  may  rain  to-morrow." 

347 •   May,  before  the  subject  of  the  verb,  is  used  to  express  a 

wish  or  prayer  ;  as,  "  May  you  be  happy !" 

348,  Can,  in  poetry,  is  sometimes  used  by  euphony  for  canst; 
as,  "  Thou  trees  and  stones  can  teach." — Davies. 

349.  flight  and  could  express,  in  past  time,  the  same  ideas 
generally  that  are  expressed  by  may  and  can  in  the  present.  They 
are  used  as  auxiliaries  in  the  past  potential. 

350.  JMight,  before  the  subject,  is  also  used  to  express  a  wish ; 
as,  "  Might  it  but  turn  out  to  be  no  worse  than  this  !" 

351,  Sometimes,  in  the  English  Bible,  might  is  used  for  m^y; 
as,  "  These  things  I  say,  that  ye  might  be  saved." — John  v.  34. 

352.  Combined  with  have,  these  form  a  new  series  of  compound 
auxiliaries  ;  thus,  shall  have  and  will  have  are  auxiliaries  of  the  future- 
perfect  indicative ;  may  have,  can  have,  and  must  have,  of  the  present- 
perfect  potential ;  and  might  have,  etc.,  of  the  past-perfect  potential. 

353,  But  though  may  denotes  present  liberty,  in  ay  have  does 
not  denote  pa^t  liberty,  but  only  the  present  possibility ;  thus,  "  He 
m^y  have  written,"  means,  It  is  possible  that  he  has  written.    So^ 


88  EITGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

also,  must  have  does  not  denote  past  necessity,  but  present  cer- 
tainty ;  thus,  "  He  must  have  written,"  means,  There  is  no  doubt  he 
has  written  ;  it  can  not  be  otherwise. 

354:,  The  verb  ^*  to  be,"  in  all  its  moods  and  tenses,  is  used  as 
an  auxiliary  in  forming  the  passive  voice  ;  as,  "  I  am  loved ;"  "  He 
was  loved,  etc.  (507).  Also,  in  the  progressive  form  of  the  active 
voice  ;  as,  "  I  am  writing  ;"  "  He  was  writing,"  etc.  (506). 

855,  All  these  auxiliaries  are  sometimes  used  without  their  verb, 
to  express,  by  ellipsis,  the  same  thing  as  the  full  form  of  the  verb, 
together  with  its  adjuncts,  when  that  is  used  immediately  before, 
either  in  the  same  or  in  a  dififerent  tense  ;  thus,  "  He  writes  poetry  as 
well  as  I  do  ;"  "  I  can  write  as  well  as  he  can  ;"  "  If  you  can  not 
write,  I  will ;"  "  He  will  do  that  as  well  as  I  can  ;"  "  James  can  get 
his  lesson  as  well  as  ever  I  could  ;"  "  He  envies  me  as  much  as  I  do 
him." 

356.  The  verb  do  (not  auxiliary)  is  sometimes  used  as  the  sub- 
stitute of  another  verb  or  phrase  previously  used  ;  as,  "  We  have  not 
yet  found  them  all,  nor  ever  shall  do" — Milton. — "  Lucretius  wrote 
on  the  nature  of  things  in  Latin,  as  Empedocles  had  already  done  in 
Greek." — Acton. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences,  and  give  a  reason 
for  the  correction : — 

I  will  be  a  loser  by  that  bargain. — I  will  be  drowned  and 
nobody  shall  help  me. — I  will  be  punished  if  I  do  wrong. — 
You  shall  be  punished  if  you  do  not  reform. — It  shall  pro- 
bably rain  to-morrow. — If  you  shall  come  I  shall  come 
also. — Will  I  assist  you  ? — I  will  be  compelled  to  go  home. 
— I  am  resolved  that  I  shall  do  my  duty. — I  purposed  that 
if  you  would  come  home,  I  should  pay  you  a  visit. — I  hope 
that  I  will  see  him. — I  hoped  that  I  would  see  him. — You 
promised  that  you  should  write  me  soon. — He  shall  come 
of  his  own  accord,  if  encouragement  will  be  given. 

2.  In  the  following,  tell  which  expressions  are  right,  and  which 
are  wrong,  and  why : — 

It  is  thought  he  shall  come. — It  will  be  impossible  to 
get  ready  in  time. — Ye  will  not  come  to  me. — Ye  shall 


ETYMOLOGY  —  AUXILIARIES.  89 

have  your  reward. — They  should  not  do  as  they  ought.— 
We  are  resolved  that  we  will  do  our  duty. — They  are  re- 
solved that  they  shall  do  their  duty. — I  am  determined 
that  you  will  do  your  duty. — I  am  sure  you  will  do  your 
duty. 

Anoifialous  Usage. 

3fj7»  Several  of  these  auxiliaries  are  sometimes  used  in 
a  way  which  it  is  diiJicult,  perhaps  impossible,  to  explam 
in  a  satisfactory  manner,  and  which  may  justly  be  regarded 
as  aiiomalous.    The  following  are  a  few  of  these  : — 

S58.  Had  is  sometimes  used  in  poetry  for  would ;  as,  I  had 
rather,"  "  I  had  as  lief,"  for,  "  I  would  rather,"  "  I  would  as  lief." 
Sometimes  it  is  used  for  would  have  ;  as,  "  My  fortune  had  [would 
have]  been  liis." — Dry  den.  Sometimes  for  might ;  as,  "  Some  men 
had  [might]  as  well  be  schoolboys,  as  schoolmasters." 

350,  Will  is  sometimes  used  to  express  what  is  customary  at  the 
present  time  ;  as,  "  He  vyill  sometimes  sit  whole  hours  in  the  shade  ;" 
*'  He  will  read  from  morning  till  night." 

300,  Would,  in  like  manner,  is  sometimes  used  to  express  what 
was  customary  in  past  times  as,  "  The  old  man  would  shake  his  years 
away  ;"  "  He'd  sit  him  down." 

361,  Would,  is  sometimes  used  as  a  principal  verb,  equivalent  to 
the  present  of  u:ish  or  desire  ;  as,  "  When  I  make  a  feast,  I  would  my 
guests  should  praise  it — not  the  cooks." — "  When  I  would  [when  I 
wish  to]  do  good,  evil  is  present  with  me.  Thus  used,  the  subject  in 
the  first  person  is  sometimes  omitted ;  as,  "  Would  God  it  were  even," 
="  I  pray  God  ;"  "  Would  to  God,"="  I  pray  to  God." 

362,  Would,  with  a  negative,  used  in  this  way,  is  not  merely 
negative  of  a  wish  or  desire,  but  implies  strong  opposition  or  refusal ; 
as,  "  How  often  would  I  have  gathered  thy  children — ^but  ye  would 
not ;"  "  Ye  would  none  of  my  reproof." 

363,  Should  is  used  in  all  persons  to  denote  present  duty,  and 
should  have,  to  denote  past  duty  ;  as,  "  You  should  write  ;"  "  I  should 
have  written  ;"  "  The  rich  should  remember  the  poor." 

It  often  denotes  merely  a  supposed  future  ev«nt :  as.  "  If  he  shmld 
promise,  he  will  perform." 


90  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

It  is  sometimes  used  in  an  indefinite  sense  after  that ;  as,  "  It  is 
surprising  that  you  should  say  so." 

364.  Should  and  would  are  sometimes  used  to  express  an  asser- 
tion in  a  softened  manner ;  thus,  instead  of  saying,  "  I  tMnk  him 
insane  " — "  It  seems  to  be  improper,"  it  is  milder  to  say,  "  I  should 
think  him  insane  " — "  It  would  seem  to  be  improper." 


Inflection  of  Verbs. 


S65.  Tlie  Accidents  of  verbs  are  Voices^  Moods^ 
TenseSf  Ifumhers,  and  JPersons  (473"^). 

Of  Voice. 

366.  Voice  is  a  particular  form  of  the  verb, 
which  shows  the  relation  of  the  subject  or  thing 
spoken  of,  to  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb 
(494,  507). 

867 >  Transitive  verbs  have  two  voices,  called 
the  Active  and  the  Passim. 

368.  The  Active  Voice  (494)  represents  the  sub- 
ject of  the  verb  as  acting ;  as,  "James  strikes  the 
table." 

369.  The  I^assive  Voice  (507)  represents  the 
subject  of  the  verb  as  acted  upon  ;  as,  "  The  table 
is  struck  by  James." 

In  other  words,  the  verb,  in  the  active  voice,  expresses  the 
act  of  its  subject ; — in  the  passive,  it  expresses  the  state 
of  its  subject,  as  affected  b}^  the  act.  In  the  active  voice, 
the  subject  of  the  verb  acts — in  the  passive,  it  is  acted 
xipon. 

370.  It  is  manifest  from  these  examples,  that  whether  we  use  the 
active  or  the  passive  voice,  the  meaning  is  the  same,  except  in  certain 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERB  S —  VOICES.  Ol 

rerbs  in  the  present  tense  (509).  Tliere  is  the  same  act,  the  same 
actor,  and  the  same  receiver  of  the  act.  The  difference  is 
only  in  the  form  of  expression.  With  the  active  voice,  the  actor  in 
the  nominative  case  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  (760) ;  with  the  pas- 
sive,  the  actor  is  in  the  objective  case  after  a  preposition  (818). — In 
using  the  active  voice,  the  receiver  of  the  act  is  in  the  objective  case, 
as  the  object  of  the  verb  (801) ;  in  using  the  passive,  it  is  in  the  norri' 
inative  case,  as  the  subject  of  the  verb. 

37 !•  It  is  manifest,  also,  that  when  we  know  the  act  done,  the 
person  or  thing  doing  it,  and  that  to  which  it  is  done,  we  can  always, 
by  means  of  the  two  voices,  express  the  fact  in  two  different  ways  ; 
thus,  "  God  created  the  world ;"  or,  "  The  world  was  created  by  God." 
Also — 

372.  When  the  active  voice  is  used,  we  may  sometimes  omit  the 
object ;  thus,  we  can  say,  "  John  reads,"  without  saying  what  he 
reads  (323) ;  and  when  the  passive  is  used,  we  may  omit  the  agent  or 
actor ;  thus,  we  can  say,  "  The  letter  is  written,"  without  saying  by 
whom. 

373.  Hence,  the  following  advantages  arise  from  these 
two  forms  of  expression  : — 

1.  We  can,  by  the  form  alone,  direct  attention,  chiefly,  either  to  the 
actor,  or  to  that  which  is  acted  tipon — to  the  former,  by  using  the 
active  voice — "  God  created  the  world  " — to  the  latter,  by  using  the 
passive — "  The  world  was  created  by  God." 

2.  By  means  of  the  passive  voice,  we  are  able  to  state  a  fact,  when 
we  either  do  not  know,  or,  for  some  reason,  may  not  wish  to  state,  by 
whom  the  act  was  done.  Thus  we  can  say,  "  The  glass  is  broken," 
though  we  do  not  know  who  broke  it ;  or  if  we  know,  do  not  wish 
to  tell. 

3.  By  this  means,  also,  we  have  a  variety,  and  of  course,  a  choice 
of  expression,  and  may,  at  pleasure,  use  that  which  to  us  appears  the 
most  perspicuous,  convenient,  or  elegant. 

374.  Intransitive  verbs  can  have  no  distinction  of 
voice,  because  they  have  no  object  which  can  be  used  as 
the  subject  in  the  passive.  Their  form  is  generally  active ; 
as,  "  I  sta7id  ;"  "  I  run."  A  few  are  used  also  in  the  pas- 
sive form,  but  with  the  same  sense  as  in  the  active ;  as, 


92  EKGLISIIGRAMMAE. 

"  He  is  come  ;  "  They  are  gone ;"  equiyalent  to,  "  He  hj& 
come ;"  "  They  Jiave  gone." 

37S.  Intransitive  verbs  are  sometimes  rendered 
transitive^  and  so  capable  of  a  passive  form — 

1.  By  the  addition  of  another  word :  thus,  " I  laugh" 
is  intransitive ;  "  I  laugh  at  (him) "  is  transitive ;  passive, 
"  He  is  laughed  at  (by  me)." 

In  parsing  such  examples,  it  is  generally  better,  in  the  active  voice, 
to  parse  the  words  separately — laugh,  as  an  intransitive  verb,  and  at 
as  a  preposition,  followed  by  its  object ;  but,  in  the  passive  voice,  they 
must  be  parsed  together  as  one  word — a  transitive  verb,  in  the  passive 
voice. 

2.  Intransitive  verbs  become  transitive,  when  followed 
by  a  noun  of  similar  signification  as  the  object ;  as,  intran- 
sitive, "Irunj"  transitive, active,  "I  run  a  race;"  passive, 
"  A  race  is  run  by  me." 

3.  Intransitive  verbs  become  transitive,  when  used  in  a 
Causative  sense ;  that  is,  when  they  denote  the  causing 
of  that  act  or  state  which  the  verb  properly  expresses ;  as, 
"  Walk  your  horse  round  the  yard." — "  The  proprietors  run 
a  stage-coach  daily."  Passively,  "  Your  horse  was  walked 
[made  to  walk]  round  the  yard  " — "  A  stage-coach  is  run 
[made  to  run]  daily  by  the  proprietors."  Intransitive 
verbs,  used  in  this  way,  are  called  Causatives. 

4.  Many  verbs  in  the  active  voice,  by  an  idiom  peculiar  to  the 
English,  are  used  in  a  sense  nearly  allied  to  the  passive,  but  for  which 
tlie  passive  will  not  always  be  a  proper  substitute.  Thus,  we  say, 
"  This  field  ploughs  well " — "  These  lines  read  smoothly  " — "  This 
fruit  tastes  bitter " — "  Linen  wears  better  than  cotton."  The  idea 
here  expressed  is  quite  different  from  that  expressed  by  the  passive 
forfli :  "  This  field  is  well  ploughed  " — "  These  lines  are  smoothly 
read."  Sometimes,  however,  the  same  idea  is  expressed  by  both 
forms  ;  thus,  "  Wheat  sells  readily,"  or,  "  is  sold  readily  at  an  advanced 
price."  (Expressions  of  this  kind  are  usually  made  in  French  by  the 
reflected  verb ;  thus,  Ce  champ  se  Idboure  bien," — "  Ces  lignes  se 
lisent  aisement ").    When  used  in  this  sense,  they  may  properly  bo 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS  —  MOODS.       03 

ranked  with  intransitive  verbs,  as  they  are  never  followed  by  an  ol> 
jective  case. 

3Ioods. 

376.  3Iood  is  the  mode  or  manner  of  expressing 
tlie  signification  of  the  verb. 

31i7.  In  English  Grammar,  the  moods  are  six;^ 
namely,  the  Indicative,  Potential,  Suhjunetive^ 
Itnperative,  Infinitive^  and  Particij)ial  (397). 

378.  The  Indicative  mood  declares  the  fact 
expressed  by  the  verb,  simply  and  without  limita- 
tion ;  as,  ''He^5," — "HeZo??e5," — "He  is  loved"^^ 
(486,  494,  507.) 

379.  In  other  words,  the  indicative  mood  attributes  to 
its  subject  the  act,  being  or  state,  expressed  by  the  verb, 
simply  and  without  limitation. 

380.  The  I*otential  mood  declares,  not  the  fact 
expressed  by  the  verb,  but  only  its  possibilit?/,  or 
the  liberty,  power,  will,  or  obligation,  of  the  subject 
with  respect  to  it;  as,  '*The  wind  may  blow-'' — 
"We  may  waW — "I  can  swim'''' — "He  would 
not  stay  " — "  Children  should  obey  their  parents."' 

In  other  words,  the  potential  mood  expresses,  not  what 
the  subject  does,  or  is,  etc.,  but  what  it  may,  can,  must, 
might,  could,  would,  or  should  do,  or  he,  etc. 

381.  The  auxiliaries  may,  can,  etc.,  in  the  potential  mood,  in  all 
probability,  were  at  first  independent  verbs  in  the  indicative,  fol- 
lowed by  the  verb  in  the  infinitive,  without  the  sign  to  before  it, 
as  it  is  now  used  after  such  verbs  as  see,  hear,  feel,  let,  etc.  (877).  This 
is  apparent  when  we  consider  that,  "I  can  go"="  I  am  able  to  go," 
etc.  Grammarians  now  generally  combine  them  as  one  word,  con- 
stituting a  particular  form  of  the  verb,  to  which  (from  its  leading  use) 
they  have  given  the  name  of  potential  mood.  The  indicative  and  poten- 
tial both  declare,  but  they  declare  diflTerent  things ;  the  former  declares 
what  the  subject  does,  or  is  ;  the  latter  what  it  may  or  cam,  etc.,  do  or 


94  ENGLISHGEAMMAB. 

he.  The  declaration  made  by  the  indicative  is  simple  ;  that  made  by 
the  potential  is  always  complex,  containing  the  idea  of  liberty,  power, 
etc.,  in  connection  with  the  act."  "  He  tcrites,"  is  the  indicative  of  the 
verb  to  write.  "  He  can  write,"  is  the  indicative  of  the  verb  can,  with 
the  infinitive  to  write  j  or,  combined,  the  potential  of  the  verb  to  write.'* 
382»  Both  the  indicative  and  the  potential  mood  are  used  inter^ 
rogatively  ;  as,  "  Does  he  love  ?" — "  Can  he  write  ?"  They  are  also  used 
without  dependence  on  another  verb,  and  express  a  complete  idea  in 
themselves.  "  James  writes  a  letter,"  and  "  James  can  write  a  letter," 
are  equally  complete  and  independent  sentences. 

SS3,  The  Subjunctive  mood  represents  the  fact 
expressed  by  the  verb,  not  as  actual,  but  as  con- 
ditional, desirable,  or  contingent ;  as,  if  he  study.,  he 
will  improve."—"  O  that  thou  wert  as  my  brother  V 

384:,  This  mood,  as  its  name  implies,  is  always  siibjoined  to  and 
dependent  on  another  verb  expressed  or  understood.  "  If  he  study, 
he  will  improve." — "  O  (I  wish)  that  thou  wert,"  etc. 

385.  The  idea  of  contingency,  expressed  by  the  subjunctive 
mood,  is  rather  a  relation  of  syntax  than  a  distinct  mood  of  the 
verb  (891).    (See,  also,  392). 

386,  The  subjunctive  mood  differs  in  form  from  the  indicative  in 
the  present  tense  only  ;  in  the  verb  to  be,  in  the  present  and  past. 

387*  Both  the  indicative  and  the  potential,  with  a  conjunctive 
particle  prefixed,  are  used  subjunctively ;  that  is,  they  are  used  to 
express  what  is  conditional,  or  contingent,  and  with  dependence  on 
another  verb  ;  as,  "  If  he  sleeps,  he  will  do  well  " — "  He  would  go  if 
he  could  "  (go). 

388,  In  parsing,  that  only  should  be  called  the  subjunctive  mood 
which  has  the  subjunctive  form.  When  the  indicative  or  potential  is 
used  subjunctively,  it  should  be  so  stated. 

389,  The  conditionality  or  contingency,  etc.,  expressed  by  tliis 
mood,  is  usually  intimated  by  such  conjunctions  as  if,  thougJi,  lest, 
unless,  so,  etc.,  prefixed,  which,  however,  make  no  part  of  the  verb. 

300,  The  same  thing  is  sometimes  expressed  without  the  con- 
junction, by  merely  putting  the  verb  or  auxiliary  before  the  subject 
or  nominative  ;  as,  "Had  I,"  for  "If  I  had"  "Were  lie,"  for  "If  he 
were  " — "Had  he  gone,"  for  "If  he  had  gone  " — "  Would  he  but  reform" 
for  "  If  he  would  but  reform,"  etc. 

391.  1.  The  subjunctive  present  is  only  an  abbreviated 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS  —  MOODS.      86 

form  of  the  future  indicative,  or  the  past  potential,  and  the 
supplement  may  always  be  made ;  thus,  "  If  he  study, ^ 
etc.,  that  is,  "  If  he  shall  (or  should)  study,"  etc. — "  Though 
he  [should]  come,"  etc.  Instead  of  the  regular  form  of  the 
past  indicative,  usage  has  sanctioned  a  peculiarly  distinct 
form  of  the  verb  to  be,  in  the  past  tense ;  as,  "  If  I  ivere, 
for  "  If  I  should."  For  though  we  might  say,  "  If  I  should 
be,"  for  "  If  I  be,"  yet  we  can  not  say,  "  If  I  should  were  ;" 
and  there  are  some  cases  in  which  the  present  subjunctive 
form  seems  to  be  indispensable ;  as,  "  See  that  thou  do  it 
not "— "  K  he  do  but  try,  he  wiU  succeed."  Still- 
ed ^.  2.  The  subjunctive  mood,  in  its  distinctive  form,  is  now  fall- 
ing greatly  into  disusa  The  tendency  appears  to  be  to  lay  it  aside,  and 
to  use  the  indicative  or  potential  in  its  stead,  wherever  it  can  be  done. 
According  to  rule,  the  subjunctive  form  is  used  only  when  it  has  a 
future  reference  ;  as,  "  If  he  come  [viz.,  at  a  future  time]  he  will  be 
welcome."  The  same  idea  is  expressed  by  saying,  "  If  he  comes  " 
(406),  "  If  he  shall  come  " — or,  "  If  he  should  come" — and  one  or  other 
of  these  expressions  is  now  generally  preferred  to  the  subjunctive. 
Formerly,  in  cases  of  supposition,  the  present  subjunctive  was  used, 
whether  it  had  a  future  reference  or  not ;  as,  "  Though  God  be  high, 
yet  hath  he  respect  to  the  lowly."  In  all  such  expressions,  accord- 
ing to  present  usage,  the  present  indicative  would  be  used ;  thus, 
"  Though  God  is  high,"  etc. 

392,  The  Imjyerative  mood  commands,  exhorts, 
entreats,  or  permits;  as,  *'i>otliis" — "- Rememher 
thy  Creator" — '' Hear^  O  my  people" — "Go  thy 
way"  (467). 

393,  The  Tnfifiitive  mood  expresses  the  meaning 
of  the  verb  in  a  general  manner,  without  any  dis- 
tinction of  person  or  number  ;  as,  to  love, 

394,  The  infinitive  is  often  used  as  a  verbal  noun  (866, 
867)  in  the  nominative  case,  as  the  subject  of  th.e  verb ;  as 
"  To  play  is  pleasant."  Or,  in  the  objective,  as  the  ob- 
ject of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice,  or  of  a  prepo* 


Vb  ENGLISH    GEAMMAE. 

sition ;  as,  "  Boys  love  to  play  "  "  He  is  about  to  go  ''— 
"  What  went  ye  out /or  to  seef"  (867). 

395,  1.  The  infinitive  mood  lias  always  a  subject,  expressed  or 
understood  ;  yet  the  act,  being,  or  state,  expressed  by  it,  is  sometimes 
so  general  that  it  is  unimportant  to  ascertain  its  subject,  or  impossible 
to  designate  any  particular  person  or  thing  as  such.  Thus,  in  the 
above  examples,  to  play  is  referable  to  hoys  j  to  go  is  the  act  of  he, 
etc. 

2.  When  the  infinitive  as  a  subject  has  its  own  subject,  it  is  in  the 
objective  case,  introduced  by  for  ;  as,  "  For  us  to  lie,  is  base."  But 
when  the  infinitive  with  its  subject  is  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb, 
that  subject  in  the  objective  case  needs  no  connecting  word  ;  as,  "  We 
believe  him  to  he  sincere."  Here  him  is-  the  subject  of  to  be,  and  the 
whole  clause  "  him  to  be  sincere  "="  that  he  is  sincere  "  is  the  object 
of  "believe"  (872). 

396*  The  infinitive  active,  by  an  anomaly  not  uncommon  in  other 
languages,  is  sometimes  used  in  a  passive  sense ;  as,  "  You  are  to 
blame  "  (to  be  blamed) — "  A  house  to  let " — "  A  road  to  make  " — 
"  Goods  made  to  sell " — "  Knives  to  grind,  etc. 

397.  The  I^articijHal  mood  is  used  to  denote 
action  or  state  ;  1.  As  continuing  or  incomplete  ;  2. 
As  complete  or  finished  without  regard  to  time. 

It  is  always  used  in  connection  with  another  verb,  as  an 
attribute  of  its  subject,  or  a  limiter  of  its  object,  as,  "  I  am 
luriting  " — "  I  saw  him  running  " — "  The  letter  is  written 
(See  452,  et  seq.). 

Tenses, 

398.  Tenses  are  certain  forms  of  the  verb  which 
serve  to  point  out  the  distinctions  of  time. 

399.  Time  is  naturally  divided  into  iliepast,  the  present,  and  the 
future.  The  past  includes  all  that  goes  before  the  present ;  i\\e  future 
includes  all  that  comes  after  the  present ;  and  the  present,  strictly 
speaking,  is  the  point  in  which  the  past  and  future  meet,  and  which  has 
itself,  no  space  or  continuance.  In  grammar,  however,  the  present  is 
not  regarded  in  this  strict  sense,  but  as  extending  to  a  greater  or  less 
period  of  which  the  passing  instant  forms  a  part ;  as,  this  moment, 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS  —  TENSES.       97 

hour,  day,  week,  etc.  In  each  of  these  an  act,  etc.,  may  be  expressed 
either  simply  and  indefinitely  as  present,  or  definitely  as  completed  ; 
and  these  are  expressed  by  different  forms  of  the  verb  called  tenses. 
Hence — 

400.  The  tenses  in  English  are  six— the  I'resenf, 
the  l^resent-perfecty  the  ^ast,  the  Past-perfect, 
the  Future  and  the  Future-perfect.'^ 

401.  Of  these,  the  present  and  the  past,  in  the  indica- 
tive mood,  and  the  present  in  the  subjunctive,  are  simple 
tenses,  consisting  of  the  verb  only ;  as,  "  I  love  " — "  I  loved" 
All  the  rest  are  compound,  consisting  of  the  auxiliary  and 
the  verlj ;  as,  "  I  have  loved." 

Remark. — The  indicative  mood  alone  has  all  the  tenses,  and  in  it 
alone  are  the  distinctions  of  time  strictly  indicated. 

The  tenses  may  be  represented  to  the  eye  by  the  following  diagram: 

Definite  Past  Time.  Definite  Future  Time. 

A  Present.  A 


Past-Perfect, 


Present-perfect,  A  Future-perfect 


Past, 


Future. 


TEIJTSES  OF  THE  IN^DICATIVE  MOOD. 

402.  The  Fresent  tense  expresses  what  is  going  on 
at  the  present  time ;  a^i  "^  I  love  " — "  I  am  loved." 


*  The  paM  tense  in  Eng'ish,  does  not  correspond  to  the  imperfect 
in  Latin  or  Greek,  but  rather  to  the  Greek  Aorist.  There  is,  there- 
fore, no  propriety  in  retaining  the  name  imperfect.  The  Latin  im- 
I>erfect  corresponds  precisely  to  the  past-progressive  in  English  (506). 
So  also,  the  present-perfect  does  not  correspond  precisely  to  the  Latin 
perfect,  as  that  is  used  in  an  indefinite  sense,  like  the  Greek  Aorist, 
and  also  in  a  definite  secse,  like  the  English  present-perfect.  The 
past-perfect  corresponds  to  i\iQ  pluperfect  in  Latin.  The  future  and 
the  future-perfect  in  English  correspond  to  the  tenses  of  the  same 
name  in  Latin.     See  B.  Latin  Gr.,  167  :  B.  and  M.  Latin  Gr.,  260. 


98  ENGLISH    GEAMMAE. 

4:03,  Tliis  tense  is  used  also  to  express  what  is  habitual,  or  always 
true  ;  as,  "  He  goes  to  cliurch  " — "  Virtue  is  its  own  reward  " — "  Vice 
produces  misery." 

404,  It  is  used,  in  animated  narration,  to  express  past  events  with 
force  and  interest,  as  if  they  were  present ;  as,  Caesar  learns  Gaul, 
crosses  the  Rubicon,  and  enters  Italy  "  (1046,  5). 

405,  It  is  used  sometimes,  instead  of  the  present-perfect  tense,-in 
speaking  of  authors  long  since  dead,  when  reference  is  made  to  their 
works  which  still  exist,  as,  "  Moses  tells  us  who  were  the  descendants 
of  Abraham  " — "  Virgil  imitates  Homer ;"  instead  of  "  has  told"  "  has 
imitated." 

406,  It  is  used  in  dependent  clauses  after  such  words  as  when, 
before,  if,  as  soon  as,  after,  till,  and  also  after  relative  pronouns,  to 
express  the  relative  time  of  a  future  action,  that  is  of  an  actioji  future 
at  the  time  of  speaking,  but  which  will  be  present  at  the  time  refer- 
red  to  ;  as,  "  When  he  comes,  he  will  be  welcome  " — "  We  shall  get 
our  letters  as  soon  as  the  post  arrives  " — "  He  will  kill  every  one 
[whom]  he  meets,"  etc. 

"  No  longer  mourn  for  me  when  I  am  dead." — Shakes. 

407.  The  Present-perfect  tense  represents  an 
action  or  event  as  completed  at  .the  present  time,  or  in  a 
period  of  which  the  present  forms  a  part ;  as,  "  I  have  sold 
my  horse  " — "  I  have  wallced  six  miles  to-day  " — "  John  has 
leen  busy  this  week" — "Many  good  books  have  been  pub- 
lished this  century."    See  911. 

408.  The  sign  of  the  present-perfect  is  have — ^inflected,  have,hast^ 
Tuts,  or  hath. 

409,  In  the  use  of  this  tense,  it  matters  not  how  long  ago  the  act 
referred  to  may  have  been  performed,  if  it  was  in  a  period  reaching 
to  and  embracing  the  present ;  as,  "  Many  discoveries  in  the  arts 
jMve  been  made  since  the  days  of  Bacon;"  that  is,  in  the  period 
reaching  from  that  time  to  the  present.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
time  of  an  act  mentioned  is  j)ast,  and  does  not  include  the  present, 
this  tense  can  not  be  used,  however  near  the  time  may  be.  Thus,  we 
can  not  properly  say,  "  I  have  seen  your  friend  a  moment  ago  ;"  but, 
**  I  saw  your  friend,"  etc. 

410,  This  tense  is  used  to  express  an  act  or  state  continue<3 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS  —  TEIfSES.  99 

through  a  period  of  time  reaching  to  the  present ;  as,  "  He  has 
studied  grammar  six  months  " — "  He  has  been  absent  [now]  six  years." 

411,  It  is  used  to  express  acts  long  since  completed,  when  the 
reference  is  not  to  the  act  of  finishing,  but  to  the  thing  finished  and 
still  existing ;  as,  "  Cicero  has  written  orations  " — "  Moses  has  told  us 
many  important  facts  in  liis  writings  " — "  Of  old  thou  hast  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  earth,  and  the  heavens  are  the  work  of  thy  hand." 
But  if  the  thing  completed  does  not  now  exist,  or  if  the  reference  is 
to  the  act  of  finishing  and  not  to  the  present  continuance  of  the  thing 
finished,  this  tense  can  not  be  used  ;  thus,  we  can  not  say,  "  Cicero 
hMS  written  poems,"  because  no  such  productions  now  remain.  Nor, 
"  In  the  beginning  God  has  created  the  heavens,"  because  reference  is 
only  to  the  act  of  God  at  a  certain  past  time  indicated  by  the  words 
"  In  the  beginning." 

412,  It  is  used  in  the  same  manner  as  the  present  (406),  instead  of 
the  future-perfect,  to  represent  an  action,  etc.,  as  perfect  at  a  future 
time  ;  as,  "  The  cock  shall  not  crow,  till  thou  hast  denied  me  thrice." 

413,  Sometimes  this  tense  is  used  in  effect  to  deny  the  present 
existence  of  that  which  the  verb  expresses  the  completion ;  as,  "  I 
have  been  young  " — meaning,  this  is  now  finished — "  I  am  young  no 
more." 

414,  This  tense  corresponds  to  the  loiim  perfect  definite. 

41o.  The  IPast  tense  expresses  what  took  place  in 
past  time  ;  as,  "  In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heavens/' 
— "  God  said.  Let  there  be  hght." — "  The  ship  sailed  when 
the  mail  arrived^    See  913. 

410.  1.  The  time  expressed  by  this  tense  is  regarded  as  entirely 
past,  and,  however  near  to  the  present,  it  does  not  embrace  it ;  as,  "  I 
saw  your  friend  a  moment  ago  ;  "  I  wrote  yesterday." 

2.  In  such  expressions  as  "  I  wrote  this  morning  " — "  this  week  " — 
"  this  year"  etc.,  the  reference  is  to  a  point  of  time  now  entirely  past, 
in  these  yet  unfinished  periods. 

417,  The  past  tense  never  indicates,  of  itself,  without  a  limiting 
word,  any  definite  time. 

418,  This  tense  is  used  to  express  what  was  customary  in  past 
time  ;  as,  "  She  attended  church  regularly  all  her  life." 

4:19.  The  I^ast-perfect  tense  represents  an  action 


100  ENGLISH    GRAMMAE. 

or  event  as  completed  at  or  before  a  certain  past  time ;  as, 
"  I  had  walked  six  miles  that  day  " — "  John  had  heen  busy 
that  week  " — "  The  ship  had  sailed  when  the  mail  arrived  " 
— that  is,  the  ship  sailed  lefore  the  mail  arrived.  See  914, 
915. 

420.  The  sign  of  tlie  past-perfect  is  Jiad  ;  second  person,  liadst 
This  tense  corresponds  to  the  Latin  -pluperfeci, 

4:21.  The  Future  tense  expresses  what  will  take 
take  place  in  future  time ;  as,  "  I  will  see  you  again,  and 
your  hearts  shall  rejoiced 

422.  The  signs  of  the  future  are  shall,  wiU. 

423.  The  Future-perfect  tense  intimates  that  an 
action  or  event  will  be  completed  at  or  before  a  certain  time 
yet  future ;  as,  "  I  shall  have  got  my  lesson  by  ten  o'clock  " 
■ — "He  will  have  finished  his  letter  before  you  are  ready." 

424.  The  signs  of  the  future-perfect  are  shall  have,  will  have. 

TE2S"SES   OF  THE   POTE]S"TIAL  MOOD. 

425.  The  Fotential  has  four  tenses — called  th« 
Present,  the  Present-perfect,  the  Past,  and  the 
Past-perfect. 

420.  The  Present  potential  expresses  present  liberty, 
power,  or  obligation. 

427-  The  signs  of  the  Present  are  map,  can,  must. 

428.  The  Present-perfect,  in  this  mood,  does  not 
correspond  in  meaning  to  the  same  tense  in  the  indicative, 
but  more  properly  expresses  present  possibility,  liberty, 
necessity,  etc.,  with  respect  to  an  act  or  state  supposed  to  be 
past ;  thus,  "  He  may  have  written"  means,  It  is  possible 
that  he  wrote,  or  has  written ;  "  He  must  have  written/' 
means,  "  It  must  be  that  he  wrote,  or  has  written. 

429,  The  signs  of  the  Present-perfect  potential  are,  may  have, 
tan  hate,  must  have. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  Y  E  R  B  3-^5^18  I^S  ES.  XOl 

430,  The  I^ast  potential  is  wry  indefinite  mt)>?6«p;e^t- 
to  time,  being  used  to  express  liberty,  ability,  purpose,  or 
duty,  sometimes  with  regard  to  what  is  past,  sometimes 
with  regard  to  what  is  present,  and  sometimes  with  regard 
t  J  what  is  future ;  thus — 

Fast — "  He  could  not  do  it  then,  for  he  was  otherwise 
engaged/' 

Present — "  I  would  do  it  with  pleasure  now,  if  I  could/' 
Futtire — "If   he  would  delay  his  journey  a  few  days, 
1 77iight  [could,  would,  or  should^  accompany  him/' 

431,  The  signs  of  the  Past  potential  are,  might,  could,  would, 
should. 

432,  The  I^ast-perfect  potential,  also,  never  corres- 
ponds in  time  to  the  past-peifect  indicative ;  that  is,  it  never 
represents  an  act,  etc.,  as  completed  at  a  certain  past  time, 
hut  expresses  the  liberty,  ability,  'purpose,  or  duty,  with 
respect  to  the  act  or  state  expressed  by  the  verb,  as  now 
past ;  thus,  "  He  could  have  written^  means.  He  was  able, 
to  write, 

4:33.  The  signs  of  the  Past-perfect  potential  are,  might   have, 
could  have,  would  have,  should  have. 
434.  The  Future  and  Future-perfect  are  wanting  in  the  Potential 

TENSES  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

43o,  Tlie  Subjunctive  mood,  in  its  proper  form, 
has  only  the  Present  tense. 

The  verb  "  to  be  "  has  the  present  and  the  past.  Tlie  indicative 
mood  used  subjunctively  (387),  furnishes  what  may  be  called  a  second 
form  of  the  present  subjunctive,  and  the  only  form  of  the  other  sub- 
junctive tenses. 

430.  The  I^rese^it  subjunctive,  in  its  proper  form, 
according  to  present  approved  usage,  has  always  a  fu- 
ture reference;  that  is,  it  denotes  a  present  uncertainty 
or  contingency  respecting  a   supposed  future  action  or 


^^?  "  .  .  '/   '.4"^.<^,I^  ISH    GRAMMAR. 

/;eV€4jtj;V^'u?,''^ if  fee-f?^^/^/'  is  equivalent  to,  "If  he  should 
write/'  or,  "  If  he  shall  write."* 

4:37*  Uncertainty  or  contingency  respecting  a  supposed  present 
action  or  state,  is  expressed  by  the  present  indicative  used  subjuno- 
tively  •  as.  "  If  he  writes  as  well  as  he  reads,  he  will  succeed." 

438,  The  Present-perfect  subjunctive  is  only  the  same  tense 
■  of  the  indicative,  used  subjunctively.     Such  expressions  as  "  If  she 

have  brought  up  children,  etc.  (1  Tim.  v.  10),  are  now  obsolete. 

439.  The  JPast  subjunctive  is  used  in  two  senses — 

1.  It  is  used  to  express  a  past  action  or  state  as  condi- 
tional or  contingent;  as,  "If  he  tvrote  that  letter  he  de- 
serves credit,  and  should  be  rewarded ;  "  If  he  was  at  home, 
I  did  not  know  it." 

2.  It  expresses  a  supposition  with  respect  to  something 
present,  and  implies  a  denial  of  the  thing  supposed;  as, 
"  If  I  had  the  money  now,  I  would  pay  it,"  implying,  I 
have  it  not.  Used  in  this  way,  the  verb  "  to  he "  (and  of 
course  the  passive  voice  of  transitive  verbs)  has  a  separate 
form  in  the  singular,  but  not  in  the  plural,  viz.,  I  iverey 
thou  wert,  he  were ;  for  I  was,  thou  wast,  he  was :  thus, 
"  If  my  kingdom  were  of  this  world,  then  would  my  ser- 
vants fight,"  implying.  It  is  not  of  this  world ;  "  0  that 
thou  wert  as  my  brother,"  implying,  "  thou  art  not." 

4:4:0 »  In  this  way,  the  Past  subjunctive  seems  to  be  always  used 
when  the  conjunctive  term  is  omitted,  and  the  verb  or  auxiliary  is 


*  From  this  usage,  this  may  properly  be  regarded  as  an  elliptical 
form  of  the  future,  or  of  the  past  potential,  in  a  future  sense,  the 
signs  shall  or  should  being  omitted.  The  forms  of  the  present  sub- 
junctive were  formerly  used  in  the  indicative,  both  in  declarative 
and  conditional  clauses,  where  the  present  usage  would  require  the 
present  indicative  ;  thus,  "  Though  the  Lord  he  [is]  high,"  etc. — Ps. 
cxxxviii.  6.—"  If  thou  he  [art]  the  Son  of  God:'—3fatth.  iv.  3,  6.— 
"  That  which  thou  sowest  is  not  quickened  except  it  die  [dies]." — 
1  Cor.  XV.  36. — "  Whether  he  he  [is]  a  sinner  or  not,  I  know  not.'*— 
JoA^  ix.  25,  etc. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS  —  TEl^SES.  103 

placed  before  its  subject  (390) ;  as, "  Hadst  thou  been  here,  my  brother 
had  not  [would  not  have  (358)  ]  died." 

4:41,  When  a  supposition,  etc.,  respecting  something  past,  is  ex- 
pressed in  this  way,  the  Past-perfect  must  be  used  ;  as,  "  If  I  had  had 
the  money  yesterday,  I  would  have  paid  it,"  imyjlying,  I  had  it  not ; 
"  O  that  thou  hadst  been  as  my  brother,"  implying  "thou  wast  not." 

442,  Though  the  past  tense,  used  in  this  way,  refers  to  a  present 
act  or  state,  yet,  as  it  has  the  past  form,  it  should,  in  parsing,  be 
called  the  past  tense. 

TENSE  OF  THE  IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

443,  Tlio  Imperative  mood  has  only  the  present 
tense,  and  that  has  respect  to  the  time  of  the  com- 
mand^ exhortation,  etc. 

The  doing  of  the  thing  commanded,  must,  of  course,  I 
subsequent  to  the  command  requiring  it. 

te:n'ses  of  the  infinitive  mood. 

444,  The  Infinitive  mood  has  two  tenses,  the 
I^resent  and  the  I^erfect,^ 

These  do  not  so  properly  denote  the  time  of  the  action, 
etc.,  as  its  state  (446  and  449) ;  as,  "To  write"— "To  have 
written." 

44i>,  In  the  other  moods  the  time  expressed  by  the  tenses,  is 
estimated  from  the  time  of  speaking,  which  is  always  regarded  as 
present ;  as,  "  I  wrote  "  (that  is,  in  a  time  now  past),  "  I  write  "  (that 
is,  in  time  now  present),  "  I  shall  write  "  (that  is,  in  time  now  future). 
But  the  infinitive  represents  the  action  or  state  expressed  ixB  present, 
not,  however,  always  at  the  time  of  speaking,  but  at  the  time  indi- 
cated by  the  preceding  verb,  or  some  other  word  in  the  sentence  ;  as, 
*  lie  wishes  to  write  " — now — to-morrow — next  week,  etc. :  "  He  wished 


*  The  word  present  is  omitted  before  perfect,  in  designating  this 
tense  in  the  infinitive  and  participles,  because  the  reference  in  these 
is  only  to  the  state  of  the  act,  etc.,  and  not  particularly  to  the  present 
time  (455). 


104'  EN"GLISH    GKAMMAR. 

to  write  " — then  (viz.,  at  the  time  of  wishing,  now  past) — next  day-~> 
this  day — to-morrow,  etc. ;  "  He  will  wish  to  write  " — then  (viz.,  a* 
the  time  of  wishing,  now  future) — next  day,  etc.    Hence  the  following 
definitions : — 

446, — 1st.  The  I*resent  infinitive  expresses  an  act  or 
state  as  incomplete,  or  indefinite,  or  as  taking  place  at  a 
time  indicated  by  some  other  word,  or  at  any  time  referred 
to,  expressed  or  implied ;  as,  "  I  wish  to  write  " — "  I  wished 
to  go" — "Apt  to  teach" 

44:7 »  The  sign  of  the  present  infinitive  is,  to  (549). 

448.  After  the  verb  to  he,  the  present  infinitive  is  sometimes  used 
to  express  a  future  action  or  event ;  as,  "  He  is  to  go  y"  "  If  he  were 
to  go,"  etc.  (876-3). 

440, — 2d.  The  Perfect  infinitive  expresses  an  act  or 
state  as  perfect  or  finished,  at  any  time  referred  to,  ex- 
pressed or  implied;  as,  "He  is  said  to  have  written" — 
already — yesterday — a  year  ago,  etc. 

450,  The  sign  of  the  perfect  infiditive  is,  to  ham. 

451,  In  the  use  of  the  infinitive  it  is  necessary  to  ohserve,  that 
the  Present  must  never  be  used  in  circumstances  which  imply  a 
finished  act ;  nor  the  Perfect  in  circumstances  which  imply  an  act 
not  finished.  Thus,  it  is  improper  to  say,  "  He  is  said  to  write  yester- 
day," because  the  language  leads  to  regard  the  act  as  finished,  since 
it  took  place  in  past  time.  It  should  be,  '*  To  have  written  yesterday  " 
(921).  Nor  can  we  say,  "  I  hoped — I  desired — I  intended,  etc. — to 
have  tcritten  yesterday,"  because  an  act  regarded  as  perfect  or  finished, 
the  doing  of  which,  of  course,  is  past,  can  not  be  the  object  of  hope, 
desire,  intention,  etc.  We  should  say,  "  I  hoped  to  write  yesterday  " 
(930). 

PAETICIPIAL  MOOD   OR  PARTICIPLES. 

452,  The  JParticipial  mood  or  participle^  ex- 
presses the  action  or  state  of  the  verb,  not  asser- 
tively, bnt^  attributively.  It  has  also  the  character 
of  the  adjective,  and  as  such,  qualifies  its  subject : 
"The  Tnan  came  seeing^'' — '' Having  finished  oui 
task,  we  may  play."     See  494,  507. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PARTICIPLES.  105 

453,  Participles  are  so  called,  because  they  belong  partly  to  the 
^r6.  and  partly  to  the  adjective.  From  the  former,  they  have  signifi' 
cation,  voice,  and  tense  ;  and  they  perform  the  o^ice  of  the  latter. 

4zii4i,  Verbs  have  three  participles — the  present,  the 
pasty  and  the  perfect ;  as,  loving,  loved,  having  loved,  in 
the  active  voice ;  and  teing  loved,  loved,  having  heen  loved, 
in  the  passive.     See  494,  507. 

455.  The  participles,  taken  by  themselves,  like  the  infinitiv^e,  do 
not  so  properly  denote  the  time  of  an  action,  as  its  state ;  while 
the  time  of  the  act,  whether  progressive  or  finished,  is  indicated  by 
the  verb  with  which  it  is  connected,  or  by  some  other  word  ;  thus, 
"  I  saw  him  writing  yesterday ;"  "  I  see  him  writing  now ;"  "I  will 
see  him  writing  to-morrow."  In  all  these  examples,  writing  expresses 
an  act  present,  and  still  in  progress  at  the  time  referred  to ;  but  with 
respect  to  the  time  of  speaking-,  the  act  of  writing,  expressed  in  the 
first  example,  is  past ;  in  the  second,  it  is  present ;  and  in  the  third, 
it  V&  future,  as  indicated  by  the  accompanying  verbs,  saw,  see,  wM  see. 

456.  The  I^resent  participle  active  ends  always 
in  ing.  In  all  verbs  it  has  an  active  signification,  and  de- 
notes an  action  or  state  as  continuing  and  progressive  ;  as, 
"  James  is  building  a  house."  In  some  verbs,  it  has  also  a 
passive  progressive  signification ;  as,  "  The  house  is  build- 
ing."    Appendix  IX. 

457.  This  passive  usage,  some  suppose,  has  its  origin  in 
the  use  of  the  verbal  noun  after  in,  to  express  the  same 
idea ;  thus,  "  Forty  and  six  years  was  this  temple  in  build- 
ing ;"  "  And  the  house  when  it  was  in  building  was  built 
of  stone  made  ready — so  that  there  was  neither  hammer 
nor  axe  heard  in  the  house,  while  it  was  in  building"  In 
the  absence  of  emphasis,  the  in  being  indistinctly  uttered, 
came  to  be  spoken,  and  consequently  to  be  written,  a  ;  as, 
"  While  the  ark  was  a  preparing "  (1  Pet,  iii.  20),  and 
finally  to  be  omitted  altogether.  Similar  changes  of  pre- 
positions we  have  in  the  expressions,  a  going,  a  running,  a 
hunting,  a  fishing,  etc.  Others,  again,  suppose  that  this 
ought  to  be  regarded  as  an  original  idiom  of  the  language, 


106  e:n^glish  geammar. 

Bimilar  to  the  passive  use  of  the  infinitive  active  noticed 
before  (396).  But  whether  either  of  these  is  the  true  ac- 
count of  this  matter  or  not,  the  fact  is  certain.  It  is  there- 
fore the  duty  of  the  grammarian  to  note  the  fact,  though 
he  may  be  unable  to  account  for  it.  The  following  are 
examples  :  "  This  new  tragedy  was  acting" — E.  Everett. 
"An  attempt  was  making^ — D.  Webster.  "The  fortress 
was  huitdmg"  etc. — Irving, 

458.  The  JPresent  jyci^tielple  passive  has  always 
a  passive  signification,  but  it  has  the  same  difierence  of 
meaning  with  respect  to  the  time  or  state  of  the  action  as 
the  present  indicative  passive  (509). 

4o9,  The  I*ast  Participle  denotes  an  action  or  state 
us  completed. 

It  has  the  same  form  in  both  voices.  In  the  active  voice,  it  belongs 
equally  to  transitive  and  intransitive  verbs — has  always  an  active 
sense — forms,  with  the  auxiliaries,  the  Present-perfect  and  Past-per- 
fect tenses — and  is  never  found  but  thus  combined ;  as,  has  loved,'* 
had  loved"  etc.  In  the  passive  voice  it  has  always  a  passive  sense,  and, 
with  the  verb  to  be  as  an  auxiliary  forms  the  passive  voice  ;  as,  "  Ho 
is  loved  ;"  or  without  it,  qualifies  a  noun  or  pronoun  ;  as,  "  A  man 
loved  by  all,  hated  by  none."  The  difference  between  the  active  and 
the  passive  participle  will  be  seen  in  the  following  examples,  viz. : 
Active  :  "  He  has  concealed  a  dagger  under  his  cloak  ;  Passive  :  He 
has  a  dagger  concealed  under  his  cloak. 

400»  The  Perfect  participle  is  always  compound  (477), 
and  represents  an  action  or  state  as  completed  at  the  time 
referred  to. 

It  has  always  an  active  sense  in  the  active  voice,  and  a  passive  sense 
in  the  passive  ;  as.  Active:  Having  finished  our  task,  «:e  may  play.  ( 
Passive  :  Our  task  having  been  finished,  we  may  play." 

4zGl,  The  Present  participle  active,  and  the  past  participle 
passive,  when  separated  from  the  idea  of  time,  become  ad- 
jectives, and  are  usually  called  participial  adjectives;  as, 
"  An  amusing  story  " — "  A  lound  book  "  (206-iv). 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS  —  TENSES.     107 

462,  The  Participle  in  ing  is  often  used  as  a  verbal  noun 
(107-5),  having  the  nominative  and  the  objective,  but  not 
the  possessive.  In  this  character  the  participle  of  a  transi- 
tive verb  may  still  retain  the  government  of  the  verb ;  as, 
"  In  keeping  his  comynayidments  there  is  a  great  reward ;"  or, 
it  may  be  divested  of  it  by  inserting  an  article  before  it,  and 
the  preposition  of  after  it ;  as,  "  In  the  Jceeping  of  his  com- 
mandments." When  of  follows  the  participle,  tJie  or  a  {an) 
should  precede  it  (899.)  But  of  can  not  be  used  before  an- 
other preposition.   See,  (903). 

463.  So  also  the  perfect  participle  ;  as,  "  There  is  satisfaction  in 
having  done  well " — "  His  having  done  liis  duty,  was,  afterward,  a 
source  of  satisfaction  (89 


Namher  and  Person, 

464,  Every  tense  of  the  verb  has  two  N^umbers,  the 
Singular  and  the  J^lural^  corresponding  to  the  singu- 
lar and  plural  of  nouns  and  pronouns.  The  singular  as- 
serts of  07ie  ;  the  plural  of  more  than  one. 

46^j.  In  each  number,  the  verb  has  three  JPersons, 
called  the  firsts  second^  and  third.  The  first  asserts 
of  the  person  speaking ;  the  second  of  the  person  spoken 
to  ;  and  the  third  of  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 

Number  and  person,  as  applied  to  verbs,  indicate  only 
the  for7n  to  be  used  with  each  number  and  person  of  the 
subject. 

466,  The  subject  of  the  verb,  in  the  first  person  sin- 
gular, is  always  J,  in  the  plural,  tve  /  in  the  second  per- 
son singular,  thou,  in  the  plural,  ye  or  you ;  in  the 
third  person,  the  subject  is  the  nafne  of  any  person, 
or  thi'ny  spoken  of,  or  a  pronoun  of  the  third  person 
in  its  stead;  also,  it  may  be  an  infinitive  mood,  or  a  clause 
of  a  sentence,  or  anything  of  which  a  person  ca5i  think  or 
speak  (762). 


108  Ei^GLISH    GRAMMAR. 

467*  In  ordinary  discourse,  the  imperative  mood 
has  only  the  second  person,  because  a  command,  exhorta- 
tio7i,  etc.,  can  be  addressed  only  to  the  person  or  persons 
spoken  to. 

4:(>8,  In  such  expressions  as  "Let  us  love'' — "Let  Mm  love" — 
"  Let  them  love  " — phrases  by  which  the  first  and  the  third  person  of 
the  imperative  in  some  languages  are  rendered — let  is  the  proper 
imperative,  in  the  second  person,  with  thou  or  ye  as  its  subject  under 
stood,  and  love  the  infinitive  without  the  sign  (877).  Thus,  "  Let  [thou] 
us  [to]  love,  etc. 

469.  This  mode  of  expression  is  sometimes  used,  even  when  no 
definite  individual  is  addressed  ;  as,  "  Let  there  be  light." 

4:70.  Among  the  poets,  however,  we  sometimes  find  a  Jf/rst  and  a 
third  person  in  the  imperative ;  as,  "  Confide  we  in  ourselves  alone." 
"  With  virtue  be  ice  armed." — Hunt's  Tasso.  "  And  rest  we  here,  Ma- 
tilda said." — Scott. 

"  Fall  he  that  must  beneath  his  rival's  arm. 
And  li/Ge  the  rest  secure  from  future  harm." — Pope. 

471*  Such  expressions  as  "  Hallowed  be  thy  name  " — "  Thy  king- 
dom come  " — "  Be  it  enacted  " — "  So  be  it,"  etc.,  may  be  regarded 
either  as  examples  of  the  third  person  in  the  imperative,  or  as  ellip- 
tical ioT"  May,"  or,  "Let  thy  name  be  hallowed" — "Let  it  be 
enacted  " — "  Let  it  be  so,"  etc. 

472.  The  infinitive  does  not  change  its  form,  whatever  the 
number,  person,  or  case  of  its  subject,  and  is  said,  therefore,  to  have 
neither  number  nor  person. 


Conjugation  of  the  Verb. 

473.  The  conjugation  of  the  verb  is  the  regu- 
lar  combination  and  arrangement  of  its  several 

Tolces,  moods,  tenses,  numbers,  and  persons."^ 


*  Inflection,  properly  speaking,  is  the  making  of  those  changes  of 
form  which  the  verb  undergoes  in  its  several  parts ;  Conjugation  is 
the  combining  or  arranging  of  thes9  forms  in  the  several  voices, 
moods,  tenses,  numbers,  and  persons,  to  which  they  belong.  Both  are 
tisually  included  under  the  term  conjugation. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VEKB3  —  C  0  ]^  J  U  Q  ATIO  N.       lOd 


Table  of  the  Verb. 


'Present. 

Present-perfect 

(AcTiva 

r  Indicative, 

Past 
Past-perfect. 

.  i  Stng. 
1  Plur. 

r  TRANSITIVE. 

] 

Future. 

J-   INTRANSITIVE. 

[attributive. 

(  Passive. 

Future-perfect 
-Present 

PQtmtial. 

Present-perfect 
Past. 

1 1  Pera. 

m 

Past-perfect 

-  \  2  Pers. 

_  rREGULAH 

Svhjunctive. 
Imperative. 

"  Present 
Past. 
Present. 
Present 

{3  Pera. 

%\  IRREGULAR. 

Infinitive. 

Perfect 

[2 

Present 

^'  ■  L  DEFECTIVE. 

,  Participial.     ■ 

Past 

Perfect 

474.  Note. — The  simple  verb  has  only  four  forms,  and  every 
compound  tense  may  be  analyzed,  and  each  of  its  parts  be  referred  to 
one  of  these,  and  its  force  and  meaning  determined.  The  relation  of 
the  auxiliary  to  the  principal  verb  properly  belongs  to  syntax.  The 
simple  forms  are  as  follows ; 

Regular. —    1.  Love.    2.  Loving.    3.  Loved.    4.  Loved. 
Irregular. — 1.  Write.  2.  Writing.  3.  Wrote.   4.  Written. 

1.  The  first  form,  love,  is  used :  1.  To  assert ;  as,  I  love.  2.  With  do, 
emphatic  ;  as,  I  do  love.  3.  In  infinitive,  connected  with  to  ;  I  desire 
to  love.    4.  To  command ;  love  thou. 

2.  The  second  form  is  used :  1.  Either  to  limit  its  subject ;  as,  "  He 
coming  in  fell  down,  etc. ;  or,  2.  In  predication  after  the  verb  to 
he  ;  He  is  coming  (progressive  form  of  the  verb). 

3.  The  third  form  is  the  past  tense. 

4.  The  fourth  form  is  used  :  1.  Actively  after  Tmve,  to  denote  that 
the  actor  is  in  possession  of  (has,  owns,  by  having  performed)  the 
act  expressed  by  the  verb.  2.  Passively ;  (1)  In  predication,  after  the 
verb  to  he,  to  express  the  receiving  of  the  act  by  the  subject ;  as,  "  He 
is  loved  (passive  voice) ,  (2)  To  limit  a  noun  (its  own  subject,  used  as 
the  subject  or  object  of  another  verb  ;  as,  "  Admired  by  all  he  became 
vain." 


no  E]^GLISH    GRAMMAE. 

Establislied  usage,  however,  renders  it  desirable  to  present  the  or- 
dinary tables,  without  change  of  nomenclature. 

475*  In  the  active  voice,  most  verbs  have  two  forms — the  Com- 
mon and  the  JProgt'essive,  and  in  some  tenses,  the  Interrogct- 
tlve  and  Emphatic. — See  Appendix  IX,  I, 

1.  The  Common  form  expresses  the  simple  existence 
of  the  fact;  as,  "He  speaks"  — "She  writes" — "They 
taller 

2.  The  JProgressit^e  form  represents  an  action  as 
begun,  and  in  progress,  but  not  completed.  It  is  formed 
by  annexing  the  present  participle  to  the  verb  " to  be" 
through  all  its  moods  and  tenses;  as,  "lam  writing" 
etc.,  (506). 

3.  In  the  present  and  the  past  indicative^  etc., 
the  lymphatic  form  is  used  to  express  a  fact  with  em- 
phasis or  force.  It  is  formed  by  prefixing  to  the  verb  the 
auxiliary  do,  m  the  present  tense,  and  did  m  the  past ;  as 
"  I  do  write  " — "  I  did  write."  The  other  tenses,  and  also 
the  progressive  form  and  passive  voice,  are  rendered  em- 
phatic, by  placing  emphasis  on  the  auxiliary  ;  as,  "  I  liave 
written^' — "I  am  writing" — "The  letter  is  written." 

4.  The  Interrogative  form  usually  transposes  the 
order  of  the  auxiliary ;  as,  "  Have  I  written  ?  "  and  m  the 
present  and  past  indicative  uses  do  and  did;  as,  "  Do  I 
write,  did  I  write  ?  " 

470,  To  these  may  be  added,  the  solemn  form  of  the  third  per 
son  singular,  present  indicative,  ending  in  t/if  or  etJif  instead  of  the 
common,  in  sor  es.  Thus — solemn  form,  loveth,  hath  loved;  common, 
loxes,  has  loved. 

477.  The  tenses  of  the  verb,  inflected  without  an  aux- 
iliary, are  called  Simple  tenses ;  those  inflected  with  an 
auxiliary  placed  before  the  past  participle,  are  called  Com- 
pound tenses. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS  —  CONJUGATION".      Ill 

478,  The  only  regular  terminations  added  to  yerbs 
are — 

1.  The  tense  endings :  ed  of  the  past  tense  and 
past  participle  (326  and  note) ;  and  ing  in  the  present 
participle. 

2.  The  personal  endings:   st^  or  esty  of  the 

second  person  singular ;  as,  lovest,  adest  (483) :  and  s^  es, 
or  ethf  of  the  third ;  as,  reads,  teaches,  or  teacheth.  The 
other  changes  are  made  by  auxiliaries. 

470,  In  the  present  and  the  past  tense,  when  St  will  easily 
coalesce  with  the  final  consonant,  it  is  added  in  the  same  syllable  ; 
as,  saidst,  lovedst.  But  when  it  will  not  easily  coalesce,  or  the  verb 
ends  in  a  vowel  sound,  est  is  commonly  added,  and  forms  another 
syllable ;  as,  wishest,  teacJiest,  lowest,  goest,  drawest,  sayest,  mxest, 
Uessest,  etc." 

480,  In  the  present  indicative,  the  endings  of  the  third  person 
sfngular,  s,  and  es,  are  subject  to  the  rules  for  the  plural  number  of 
nouns  (137-143) ;  as,  sits,  reads,  wishes,  teaches,  loves,  goes,  draws, 
carries,  says,  etc. 

481,  In  the  solemn  style,  instead  of  s,  or  es,  the  third  person 
singular  has  eth,  which  always  adds  a  syllable,  except  in  doth,  hath, 
saith,  for  doeth,  haveth,  sayeth. 

482,  The  verb  need  is  often  used  in  the  third  person  singular 
of  the  present  tense,  without  the  personal  ending  ;  as,  "  The  truth 
need  not  be  disguised  " — "  It  need  not  be  added." 

483,  In  annexing  the  tenses  and  personal  endings  to  the  verb, 
the  Rules  III.,  IV.,  and  VI.,  for  spelling  words  (57,  60,  66),  must  be 
carefully  observed. 

484,  In  the  present  indicative  active,  the  three  persons  in  the 
plural,  and  the  first  in  the  singular,  are  alike.  In  the  past  tense,  the 
three  persons  in  the  plural,  and  the  first  and  third  in  the  singular,  are 
all  alike,  except  in  the  verb  "  to  be,"  in  which  the  form  in  the  singu- 
lar is  different  from  that  of  the  plural ;  thus,  singular,  was,  wast,  was 
— plural,  were. 

48o.  The  principal  parts  of  the  verb  are   the 


112  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

JPresent   indicative^  the   Present  participle, 
tlie  Past  indicative,  and  the  Past  participle. 

In  parsing,  the  mentioning  of  these  parts  is  called 
conjugating  the  verb.     Thus  : 

Present.       Present  Participle.    Past.     Past  Participle. 
Regular        Love,  loving,  loved,  loved. 

Irregular      Write,  writing,  wrote,  written. 

Conjugation  of  the  Irregular  Verb  ^*  To  JBe." 

486.  The  irregular  and  intransitive  (or  attributive) 
verb  "to  be,"  is  used  as  a  principal  verb,  and  also  as  an 
auxiliary  in  the  passive  voice,  and  in  the  progressive .  form 
of  the  active  voice.  It  is  thus  inflected  through  all  its 
moods  and  tenses : — 


been- 


PRINCIPAL     PARTS. 
Present,  am.    Pres.  Part.,  being.    Past,  was.    Past  Part., 

Indicative    Mood, 

PRESENT    TENSE. 

Singular. 

1.  I  am.* 

2.  Thou  art  (244). 

3.  He  is. 

Plural. 

1.  We  are. 

2.  You  are. 

3.  They  are. 

PRESENT 

-PERFECT     TENSB. 

1.  I  have  been. 

2.  Thou  hast  been. 

3.  He  has  been. 

Sign,  have. 

1.  We  have  been. 

2.  You  have  been. 

3.  They  have  bee'^ 

PAST     TENSE. 

1.  I  was. 

2.  Thou  wast. 

3.  He  was. 

1.  We  were. 

2.  You  were. 

3.  They  were. 

*  Be,  and  beest  were  formerly  used  in  the  present  indicative  ;  as, 
**  We  be  true  men." — Bible — for,  We  are  true  men.  "  If  thou  beest 
he." — Milton.  "  There  be  as  many  miseries  beyond  riches  as  on  this 
side  of  them  " — Walton.    This  usage  is  now  obsolete. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS — CONJUGATIOISr.       113 
PAST-PERFECT     TENSE. 

Sign,  Imd. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  been.  1.  We  had  been. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been.  2.  You  had  been. 

3.  He  had  been.  3.  They  had  been. 

FUTURE    TENSE. 

Signs,  shall,  mil. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  shall  be.  1.  We  shall  be. 

2.  Thou  Shalt  be.  2.  You  shall  be. 

3.  He  shall  be.  3.  They  shall  be. 

FUTURE-PERFECT    TENSE. 

Signs,  shall  have,  mil  have. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  shall  have  been.  1.  We  shall  have  been. 

2.  Thou  shalt  have  been.  2.  You  shall  have  been. 

3.  He  shall  have  been.  3.  They  shall  have  been. 

Potential  Mood. 

PRESENT    TENSE. 

Signs,  may,  can,  must. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  may  be.  1.  We  may  be. 

2.  Thou  mayst  be.  2.  You  may  be. 

3.  He  may  be,  3.  They  niay  be. 

PRESENT-PERFECT   TENSE. 

Signs,  may  ha've,  can  have,*  or  must  have. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  may  have  been.  1.  We  may  have  been. 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been.  2.  You  may  have  been. 
8.  He  may  have  been.                      3.  They  may  have  been. 

PAST    TENSE. 

Signs,  might,  covZd,  would,  should. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  might  be.  1.  We  might  be. 

2.  Thou  mightst  be.  2.  You  might  be. 
8.  He  might  be.                                3.  They  might  be. 

PAST-PERFECT    TENSE. 

Signs,  might  have,  could  have,  would  have,  should  have* 
Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  might  have  been.  1.  We  might  have  been. 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been.  2.  You  might  have  been. 

3.  He  might  have  been.  3.  They  might  have  been. 


Jfcf  Can  have,  as  an  auxiliary,  is  not  used  in  affirmative  sentences. 


114 


EKGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


Singidar. 

1.  If  *  I  be. 

2.  If  tliou  be. 

3.  If  he  be. 

1.  If  I  were. 

2.  If  thou  wert,  or  were. 

3.  If  he  were. 


Subjunctive  Mood  (487)» 

PRESENT    TENSE. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  be. 

2.  If  you  be. 

3.  If  they  be. 

PAST    TENSE. 

1.  If  we  were. 

2.  If  you  were. 

3.  If  they  were. 


Imperative  Mood, 

2.  Be,  or  be  thou.  2.  Be,  or  be  ye  or  you. 

Infinitive  Mood, 


PRESENT  TENSE. 

To  be. 


PERFECT  TENSE. 

To  have  been. 


Participles, 

Present,  Being.         Past,  Been,         Perfect,  Having  been. 

4S7»  All  the  tenses  of  the  indicative,  and  also  of  the 
potential  mood,  are  used  subjunctively,  by  placing  the  con- 
junction before  them,  thus :  Present — "  If  I  am,"  "  If  thou 
art,"  "  If  lie  is,"  etc.  (386).  Present-perfect—"  If  I  liave 
been,"  etc.    Past — "  If  I  was,"  etc. 

488.  The  verb  to  be,  followed  by  an  infinitive,  forms  a 
particular  future  tense,  which  often  expresses  duty^  7ieces- 
sity,  or  purpose  ;  as,  "  Government  is  to  be  supported  " — 
"  We  are  to  pay  our  debts " — "  If  we  ivere  to  depend  ca 
others  "="  If  we  shoiiM  depend,"  etc.  (876-3). 

489,  This  verb  has  no  progressive  form.     The  em- 


*  The  conjunctions,  if,  though,  lest,  unless,  etc.,  do  not  form  part  of 
the  subjunctive  mood,  but  are  placed  before  it  to  express  a  condition 
or  contingency  (388).  The  pupil  may  go  over  the  indicative,  as  a 
subjunctive,  with  on<)  or  other  of  these  conjunctions  prefixed. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS  —  C  0  IT  J  U  Q  A  T  1  O  l?" .     115 

phatic  form  is  used  only  in  the  imperative;  as,  "Do  thou 
be"— "Z>oyoube." 

Anomalous  Usage. 

400,  Were  is  sometimes  used  for  would  be;  and  had  been,  for 
toould  have  been,  as,  "  This  were  excellent  advice." — Cowley.  "  It  were 
a  folly." — Sidney.  "  My  fortune  had  been  his,  for  woiUd  have  been  " 
(dm).—Dryden. 

Parsing  the  Verb* 

491.  A  verb  is  parsed  by  stating  its  class  (tran- 
sitive, intransitive,  or  attributive),  its  form  (regular 
or  irregular),  conjugating  it  if  irregular*  (485), 
and  stating  its  tensc^  mood,  voice,  the  subject  of 
which  it  affirms,  and  its  person  and  number ; 
thus, 

"  He  is  wise." — Is  is  a  verb,  attributive,  irregular — am,  being,  was, 
been — found  in  the  present,  indicative,  and  affirms  the  attribute  wise, 
of  its  subject  he,  in  the  third  person,  singular. 

402,  Besides  stating  the  several  properties  of  the  verb,  as  above, 
the  teacher  may  occasionally  require  the  pupil,  as  a  sort  of  reviewing 
exercise,  to  assign  a  reason  for  each  statement ;  thus : — 
**  Is — a  verb,  because  it  affirms  of  "  He." 

Attributive — ^it  affirms  the  attribute  wise  of  the  subject  Se. 
Irregular — its  past  tense  and  past  participle  do  not  end  in  ed — 

am,  being,  was,  been. 
Present — it  refers  to  present  time. 
Indicative — it  declares  sirhply,  and  without  limitation. 
Third  person — its  subject  is  spoken  of. 
Singular — it  asserts  of  but  one,  "  Re." 
As  this  process  would  consume  much  time,  it,  of  course,  can  not 
often  be  used,  and  it  is  not  necessary  after  the  pupil  is  familiar  with 
it,  and  prompt  in  assigning  the  reasons  as  above. 


*  In  parsing,  it  will  save  time  to  omit  conjugating  the  verb  when 
it  is  regular,  and  it  is  unnecessary,  because  its  being  announced  to  be 
regular  sufficiently  ascertains  its  principal  parts.  All  irregular  verba 
should  be  conjugated  as  in  513.  Every  teacher,  however,  will  adopt 
the  course  wliich  he  prefers. 


116  ENGLISH     GEAMMAR. 


493,  Sentences.— The  Subject. 

1.  A  sentence  is  an  affirmation,  and  must  contain  a 
verb  in  the  indicative,  potential,  or  imperative  mood,  by 
which  the  affirmation  is  made ;  and  a  subject  of  which 
the  verb  affirms. 

This  subject  is  generally  a  noun  or  pronoun,  in  the  nominative 
case ;  thus,  the  sentence,  "  God  is  good,"  contains  an  affirmation. 
Tlie  verb  is  affirms  of  the  noun  God,  which  is  of  course  its  subject, 
and  in  the  nominative  case. 

2.  Sentences  which  have  the  verb  in  the  imperative  mood,  contain 
a  command,  exhortation,  etc.  The  subject  is  that  to  which  the  com- 
mand is  given  (467). 

The  subject  of  a  verb,  except  in  the  infinitive  and  participial  moods, 
is  always  in  the  nominative  case. 

When  that  which  is  affirmed  of  a  subject  in  the  nominative  case, 
is  something  expressed  by  a  noun  or  pronoun  after  the  verb  to  be, 
that  noun  or  pronoun  is  always  in  the  nominative  case,  and  called 
the  pr'edicate-noniinativef  or  nominative  after  the  verb;  as, 
*'  Socrates  was  a  philosopher."  Here  philosopher  is  in  the  predicate- 
nominative,  and  expresses  what  the  verb  "  was  "  affirms  of  its  subject 
*' Socrates"    See  796. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  State  the  tense,  mood,  person,  and  number,  of  the  verb  "  to  be," 
in  the  following  examples ;  thus,  "  Am,"  present,  indicative,  active, 
first  person,  singular. 

2.  Parse  all  the  words.  Thus,  "  Am,"  a  verb,  attributive,  irregu- 
lar— am,  being,  was,  been— in  the  present,  indicative,  active,  first 
person,  singular  ; — (491),  and  the  pronouns  as  directed  (253). 

Am ;  is ;  art ;  I  was ;  we  were  ;  they  are ;  you  have 
been ;  she  had  been ;  he  was ;  we  will  be ;  they  shall  be ; 
we  had  been ;  hast  been ;  hadst  been ;  wast. 

We  may  be;  they  may  have  been;  he  might  be;  you 
might  have  been ;  you  must  be ;  they  should  have  been ; 
if  I  be;  thou  wert;  though  he  were;  if  I  had  been; 
though  I  were ;  if  we  could  have  been ;  they  might  be. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS  —  COltJUGATION.     117 

Be ;  to  be  ;  do  thou  be ;  be  ye ;  to  bave  been ;  being ; 
been ;  having  been ;  be  thou. 

Conjugation  of  the  Regular  Verb  '*  To  Love," 

494.  The  regular  transitive  verb  "  ^o  love^''  is 
inflected  through  all  its  moods  and  tenses  as  fol- 
lows : — 

ACTIVE   VOICE. 
PBINCIPAL    PARTS. 

Present,  love.    Pres.  part.,  loving.    Past,  loved.    Past  part,  loved. 
Indicative  Mood, 

PRESENT    TENSE.* 

Singtdar.  Plural. 

1.  I  love.  1.  We  love. 

2.  Thoulovest.  2.  You  love. 

3.  He  loves  {or  loveth).  3.  They  love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT    TENSE. 

.  Sign,  have. 

1.  I  have  loved.  1,  We  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  hast  loved.  2.  You  have  loved. 

3.  He  has  loved.  3.  They  have  loved. 

PAST    TENSE. 

1.  I  loved.  1.  We  loved. 

2.  Thoulovedflt.  2.  You  loved. 
8.  He  loved.                                        3.  They  lovdd. 


♦emphatic  forms. 

PBESENT    TENSE. 

1.  I  do  love.  1.  We  do  love. 

2.  Thou  dost  love.  2.  You  do  love. 
8.  He  does  love  (or  doth  love).      '  3.  They  do  love. 

PAST   TENSE. 

1.  I  did  love.  1.  We  did  love. 

2L  Thou  didst  loveT  2.  You  did  love. 

8.  He  did  love.  3.  They  did  love. 


118  El^GLISHGEAMMAE. 

PAST-PERFECT    TENSE. 

Sign,  ?iad. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  loved.  1.  We  had  loved. 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved.  2.  You  had  loved. 

3.  He  had  loved.  3.  They  had  loved. 

FUTURE    TENSE. 

Signs,  shall,  will. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  shall  love.  1.  We  shall  love. 

2.  Thou  shalt  love.  2.  You  shall  love. 

3.  He  shaU  love.  3.  They  shall  love. 

FUTURE-PERFECT    TENSE. 

Signs,  shall  hate,  will  have. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  shall  have  loved.  1.  We  shall  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  shalt  have  loved.  2.  You  shall  have  loved. 

3.  He  shall  have  loved.  3.  They  shall  have  lovedc 

JPotential  Mood, 

PRESENT    TENSE. 

Signs,  mai/,  can,  must. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  may  love.  1.  We  may  love. 

2.  Thou  mayst  love.  2.  You  may  love. 

3.  He  may  love.  3.  They  may  love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT    TENSE. 

Signs,  may  have,  can  have,^  must  have. — Inflect  with  eaclL 

1.  I  may  have  loved.  1.  We  may  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  loved.  2.  You  may  have  loved. 

3.  He  may  have  loved.  3.  They  may  have  loved. 

PAST    TENSE. 

Signs,  might,  could,  would,  should. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  might  love.  1.  We  might  love. 

2.  Thou  mightst  love.  2.  You  might  love. 

3.  He  might  love.  3.  They  might  love. 


*  Can  have,  as  an  auxiliary,  is  not  used  m  affirmative  sentences. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS  —  C  0  N  J  U  G  A  T  I  0  25^.     119 
PAST-PERFECT    TENSE. 

Signs,  might  ham,  could  have,  would  hojoe,  should  have. 

Inflect  with  each. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  have  loved.  1.  We  might  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  loved.  2.  You  might  have  loved. 

3.  He  might  have  loved.  3.  They  might  have  loved. 

Subjunctive  Mood  (487). 

PRESENT    TENSE    (435). 

1.  If  I  love.  1.  If  we  love. 

2.  If  thou  love.  2.  If  you  love. 

3.  If  he  love.  3.  If  they  love. 

Imperative  Mood, 

Singular.  Plural. 

Common  form.    2.  Love,  or  love  thou.    2.  Love,  or  love  ye  or  you. 
^mpliatic  form.  2.  Do  thou  love.  2.  Do  ye  or  you  love. 

Infinitive  Mood, 

Present,  To  love.  Perfect,  To  have  loved. 

Participles. 

Present,  Loving.       Past,  Loved.       Perfect,  Having  loved. 

495.  Preliniinary  Oral  Exercise, 

Review  the  exercise  (324),  and  then  proceed  thus : — 

When  you  say,  "  John  loves  learning,"  which  word  expresses  what 
John  does  ?  What  part  of  speech  are  words  which  express  the  act  of 
a  person  or  thing  (314)  ?    Then  what  part  of  speech  is  loves  f    Why  ? 

Whose  act  does  loves  express  ?  Then  what  is  Jo7in  to  the  verb 
loves  (315)  ?    Then  John  is  the  subject  of  loves. 

What  is  tt  said  that  John  loves  ?  Learning.  "VNliat  does  John  do 
to  learning  ?  Of  what  class  are  verbs  which  express  what  one  person 
or  thing  does  to  another  (317)  ?  Is  loves,  then,  transitive  or  intransi- 
tive ?    Transitive. 

Conjugate  love  (485).  What  is  its  past  tense ? — its  past  participle? 
In  what  do  they  end  ?  Of  what  form  are  verbs  which  have  the  past 
tense  and  the  past  participle  ending  in  ed  (326)  ?  Then  is  love  regular 
or  irregular  ?    Regular — conjugated,  love,  loved^  loved. 


1^  ENGLISH    GEAMMAB. 

(Do  all  verbs  form  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle  by  adding 
ed?  Let  us  try.  Is  it  right  to  say,  "/  go  f"  Would  you  say,  "  I 
goed  to  church  yesterday  ?"  What  would  you  say  ?  What  are  those 
verbs  called  which  do  not  add  ed  to  form  the  past  tense  and  the  past 
participle  (327)  ?    Then  i«  "  go  "  regular  or  irregular  ?    Why  ?) 

When  you  say,  "  John  loves  learning,"  does  loves  express  a  present, 
a  past,  or  a  future  act  ?  When  a  verb  expresses  a  present  act,  in  what 
lense  is  it  (402)  ?    In  what  tense,  then,  is  loves  f    Present.    Why  ? 

(What  would  you  say,  to  express  the  same  act  as  past  1 — as  future  ? 
Then  what  tense  is  loved  ? — will  lo'oe  f) 

When  you  say,  "  John  loves  learning,"  do  you  declare  a  fact 
simply,  or  with  any  limitation  ?  What  mood  declares  an  act  simply 
(378)  ?    Then  what  mood  is  loves  f    Indicative. 

In  this  sentence,  does  the  subject  John  act,  or  is  it  acted  ujwn  ? 
What  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acting  (368)  ?  Then  what  voice 
is  loves  ? 

Is  John  represented  here  as  speaking,  spoken  to,  or  spoken  of? 
What  person  represents  the  subject  as  spoken  of  (465)  ?  Then  what 
person  is  loves  f    Tliird  person. 

Does  loves  assert  the  act  of  one  person,  or  of  more  than  one? 
What  mmiber  asserts  of  one  (464)?  Then  what  number  is  loves  f 
Singular. 

4:90^  The  facts  ascertained  by  this  process  will  stand  in 
order,  thus:  '^ Loves'' — a  verl,  trmisitive,  regular,  conju- 
gated love,  loving,  loved,  loved — found  in  the  present,  indica- 
tive, active,  third  person,  singular,  and  expresses  the  act  of 
''John."    See  491. 

4:97*  This  may  be  extended,  by  giving  the  reasons  of  each  state- 
ment, as  follows : — 
**  Loves  " — a  verb,  because  it  expresses  an  act  of  its  subject  (314). 

Transitive,  because  it  expresses  an  act  that  passes  over  from 
the  actor,  John,  to  an  object,  learning  (^20a.) 

Regular,  because  its  past  tense  and  past  participle  end  in  ecL 

Conjugated,  love,  loving,  loved,  loved  (485). 

Present, — it  expresses  what  John  does  now  (402). 

Indicative, — ^it  expresses  the  act  simply  (378). 

Active, — it  represents  its  subject  as  acting  (368). 

Third  person, — ^its  subject  is  spoken  of  (465). 

SinAjvlar, — ^it  asserts  of  only  one  (464).  ^ 


ETYaiOLOGY  —  VERBS  —  CONJUGATION.    121 

EXEKCISES — NO.  L 

Inflect  the  following  irregular  verbs  in  the  same  manner  as  the 

rerb  "  to  love  :" — taking  care  to  use  the  past  participle  in  the  com- 
pound tenses  (477), 

Present.  Past.  Past  Participle, 

Go  went  gone 

Write  wrote  written 

Do  did  done 

Give  gave  given 

Ete,ve  had  had 

EXERCISES — NO.  H. 

1.  In  the  following  exercises,  tell  the  tense,  mood,  voice,  person 
and  number,  and  always  in  this  order,  thus  "Loves  " — Present,  indic& 
tive,  active,  third  person,  singular. 

2.  In  the  Imperative,  omit  the  tense,  and  say  thus,  "  Love  thou  "— 
Imperative,  active,  second  person,  singular. 

3.  In  the  Infinitive  and  Participles,  omi^;  the  person  and  number, 
and  say  tlm^To  lam" — Present,  infinitive,  active ;  "  Loving  " — Pres- 
ent participle,  active. 

N.  B. — The  pronoun  prefixed  is  no  part  of  the  verb,  but  helps  to 
show  its  person  and  number.  The  auxiliaries  (or  signs,  except  in  a 
a  special  analysis)  are  not  taken  separately,  but  always  with  the  verb ; 
so  that  the  two  words,  and  sometimes  three,  as  in  the  future-x)erfect 
indicative  are  parsed  together  as  one  word,  thus,  "  Has  loved  " — th-3 
present-perfect,  indicative,  active,  third  person,  singular. 

He  loves. — We  have  loved. — He  loved. — They  had  loved. 
— You  shall  love. — They  may  have  loved. — We  might  love. 
— Love  thou. — To  love. — You  had  gone. — They  will  go. — 
To  have  gone. — We  will  write. — They  may  write. — They 
should  go. — He  has  fa  — You  had  given. — We  might 
have  gone. — James  has  written. — Robert  loves  to  write. — • 
To  write  is  useful. — Writing  is  useful. — Having  written.— 
We  gave. — They  have  given. — You  will  give. 

The  Objective  Case. 
498»  A  transitive  verb,  m  the  active  voice,  tells  what 


122  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

its  subject  does  to  some  other  person  or  thing.  That  per- 
son or  thing  is  the  object  of  the  verb,  and  is  in  the  06- 
jective  case.  Thus,  "  He  loves  us ;"  loves  is  a  transitive 
verb  in  the  active  voice,  and  tells  what  its  subject  he,  does 
to  us.  Us,  then,  is  its  object,  and  is  in  the  objective  case. 
See  also  320. 

1.  In  the  following  exercises,  tell  which  words  are  verhs,  and  why; 
whether  transitive  or  intransitive,  and  why  ;  what  is  the  subject,  and 
why  ;  and  if  transitive,  what  is  their  object,  and  why. 

2.  Conjugate  the  verbs,  and  tell  their  tense,  mood,  voice,  person, 
and  number ;  thus,  "  Lovies  " — Verb,  transitive,  regular — love,  loving, 
loved,  loved — the  present,  indicative,  active,  third  person)  singular. 

He  loves  us. — I  will  love  him. — Good  boys  study  their 
lessons. — Children  love  play. — God  created  the  world. — Ke- 
member  thy  Creator. — Do  good  to  all  men. — Forgive  your 
enemies. — He  that  giveth  to  the  poor  (201)  lendeth  to  the 
Lord. — You  should  study  grammar. — We  shoujd  read  the 
best  books. — Bad  books  injure  the  character.— War  makes 
rogues,  and  peace  hangs  them.— Children,  obey  your  pa- 
rents.— A  good  cause  mai:es  a  strong  arm. — Show  mercy, 
and  thou  shalt  find  it. 

EXERCISES — NO.   III. 
PABSING. 
In  the  preceding  exercises  (498),  parse  each  word  in  order ;  the 
noim,  as  directed,  (183) ;  the  article,  as  directed  (194) ;  the  adjective,  as 
directed  (235) ;    the  pronoun,  as  directed  (353) ;  and  the  verb,  aa 
directed  (491  or  496).    Or,  more  fully,  as  an  occasional  exercise  (492 
or  497).  thus: 
**  Loves  " — a  verb,  because  it  expresses  an  act,  viz.,  of  he. 
transitive,  because  it  has  an  object,  us  (498). 
regular, — its  past  tense  and  past  participle  end  hied; 
conjugated,  love,  loving,  loved,  loved, 
present,  because  the  act  takes  place  in  present  time. 
indicative, — it  declares  the  fact  simply. 
third  person, — ^its  subject,  he,  is  spoken  of. 
singular, — ^it  asserts  of  but  orie. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VEKBS  —  CONJUGATION.      123 


Negative  Form  of  the  Verb, 

499.  The  verb  is  made  to  deny  by  placing  the  word  not 
fefter  the  simple  form ;  as,  "  Thou  lovest  not ;"  and  between 
the  auxiliary  and  the  verb  in  the  compound  form;  as,  '*  I 
do  not  love."  When  two  auxiliaries  are  used,  it  is  placed 
between  them ;  as,  "  I  would  not  have  loved." 

500.  In  the  infinitive  and  participles,  the  negative  is 
put  first;  as,  "Not  to  love  "—"Not  loving"— "Not  loved." 

501.  The  simple  form  is  seldom  used  with  the  negative.  In  the 
present  and  past  tenses,  the  compound  or  emphatic  form  is  more 
common.  The  following  synopsis  will  show  the  manner  of  using 
the  negative : — 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Present.       1.  I  do  not  love. 
Pres.-Perf.  1.  I  have  not  loved. 
Past.  1.  I  did  not  love. 

Past-Perf.   1,  I  had  not  loved. 
Future.        1.  I  will  not  love. 
Fut.-Perf.    1.  I  shall  not  have 
loved. 


2.  Thou  dost  not  love,  etc. 
2.  Thou  hast  not  loved,  etc. 
2.  Thou  didst  not  love,  etc. 
2.  Thou  hadst  not  loved,  etc. 
2.  Thou  wilt  not  love,  etc. 
2.  Thou  shalt  not  have  loved, 
etc. 


Present. 

Pres.-Perf.  1.  I  may  not    have 

loved. 
Past.  1.  I  might  not  love. 

Past-Perf.    1.  I  might  not  have 

loved. 

Present. 


POTENTIAL  MOOD. 
1.  I  can  not  love.  2.  Thou  canst  not  love,  etc. 

2.  Thou  mayst  not  have  loved, 

etc. 
2.  Thou  mightst  not  love,  etc. 
2.  Thou    miglitst     not     have 
loved,  etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD    (487). 
1.  ijf  I  do  not  love.  2.  If  thou  do  not  love,  etc. 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 
Singular.  Plural. 

2.  Love  not,  or  do  not  thou  love.  2.  Love  not,  or  do  not  ye  love. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
Present.     Not  to  love.  Perfect.    Not  to  have  loved 

PARTICIPLE. 
Present.     Not  loving.  Past.    Not  loved. 

Perfect.      Kot  having  loved. 


124  ENGLISH    GilAMMAR. 

Interrogative  Form  of  the  Verb. 

d02.  The  verb  is  made  to  as7^  a  question  by  placing 
the  nominative  or  subject  cifter  the  simple  form;  as, 
"  Lovest  thou  ?"  and  between  the  auxihary  and  the  verb  in 
the  compound  forms ;  as,  "  Do  I  love  ?"  When  there  are 
two  auxiliaries,  the  nominative  is  placed  between  them ; 
as,  "  Shall  I  have  loved  ?" 

503,  The  subjunctive,  imperative,  infinitive,  and  parti- 
ciples, can  not  have  the  interrogative  form. 

^04,  The  simple  form  of  the  verb  is  seldom  used  interrogatively. 
The  following  synopsis  will  show  how  how  the  verb  is  put  into  the 
interrogative  form : — 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Dost  thou  love  ?  etc. 

Hast  thou  loved  ?  etc. 
2.  Didst  thou  love  ?  etc. 

Hadst  thou  loved  ?  etc. 

Wilt  thou  love?  etc. 
2.  Wilt  thou  have  loved  ?  etc. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 
Present.      1.  May  I  love  ?  2.  Canst  thou  love  ?  etc. 

Pres.-Perf.  1.  May  I  have  loved  ?       2.  Canst  thou  have  loved  ?  etc. 
Past.  1.  Might  I  love  ?  2.  Couldst  thou  love?  etc. 

Past-Perf.   1.  Might  I  have  loved  ?   2.  Couldst  thou  have  loved  ?  etc 

505.  Interrogative  sentences  are  made  negative  by 
placing  the  negative  either  before  or  after  the  nominative ; 
as,  "  Do  I  not  love  ?"  or,  "  Do  not  I  love  ?" 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Inflect  the  verb  to  love  in  the  negative  form. 

2.  Inflect  the  indicative,  and  potential,  in  the  interrogative  form. 

3.  Change  the  exercises  (p.  121)  into  the  negative  form,  and  write 
thsm  out. 

4.  Change  the  examples  in  the  indicative  and  the  potential  into 
the  interrogative  form,  and  writefHhem  out. 


Present. 

Do  I  love  ? 

2. 

Pres.-Perf 

Have  I  loved  ? 

2. 

Past. 

Did  I  love? 

2. 

Past-Perf. 

Had  I  loved  ? 

2. 

Future. 

Shall  I  love  ? 

2. 

Fut.-Perf. 

Shall  I  have  loved? 

2. 

ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS  —  CONJUGATION.   125 

Progressive  Form  of  the  Active  Voice, 

^06,  The  I*rogressive  form  of  the  verb  is  inflected 
by  prefixing  the  verb  to  be,  through  all  its  moods  and  tenses, 
to  the  present  participle ;  thus:  — 

Present.       1.  I  am  writing.  2.  Thou  art  writing,  etc. 

Pres.-Perp.  1.  I  have  been  writing.    2.  Thou  hast  been  writing,  etc. 
Past.  1.  I  was  writing.  2.  Thou  wast  writing,  etc. 

Past-Perp.    1.  I  had  been  writing.     2.  Thou  hadst  been  writing.etc. 
Future  1.  I  shall  be  writing.       2.  Thou  shalt  be  writing,  etc. 

Fut.-Perf.     1.  I  shall  ar  will  have     2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been 
been  writing.  writing,  etc. 

Note. — Verbs  which  in  the  common  form  imply  continuance,  do 
not  usually  admit  the  progressive  form  ;   thus,  "  I  am  loving "  (if 
proper)  would  mean  nothing  more  than  "  I  love."    Appendix  IX. 
1,2. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Change  the  following  verbs  from  the  simple  into  the  progressive 
form  : — 

He  writes. — They  read. — Thou  teachesi — We  have  learn- 
ed.— He  had  written. — They  go. — You  will  build. —  I  ran. 
— John  has  done  it. — We  taught. — He  stands. — He  stood. 
— They  will  stand. — They  may  read. — We  can  sew. — You 
should  study. — We  might  have  read. 

2.  Change  the  following,  from  the  progressive  into  the  simple 
form : — 

We  are  writing. — They  were  singing. — They  have  been 
riding. — ^We  might  be  walking. — I  may  have  been  sleeping, 
— They  are  coming. — Thou  art  teaching. — They  have  been 
eating. — He  has  been  moving.^ AVe  have  been  defending. 

3.  Parse  these  verbs,  in  the  progressive  form  ;  thus,  "  We  are  icrit- 
ing  " — "  are  writing  "  is  a  verb,  transitive,  irregular — write,  loriting, 
wrote,  written — in  the  present,  indicative,  active,  first  persoD,  plural, 
progressive  form. 

4.  Change  the  exercises,  No.  2,  into  the  negative  form ;  thus,  "  We 
are  not  writing ;" — into  the  interrogative  form  :  aj^,  "  Are  we  writing?" 
— ^into  the  negative-interrogative  form ;  as,  "  Are  w«  Txot  writing  V  or, 
**  Are  not  we  writing  ?" 


126  Ejjtglishgeammar. 

passive  voice. 
S07»  The  I^assive  voice  is  inflected  Iby  adding  tlie 
past  participle  to  the  verb  "to  he,''''  as  an  auxiliary, 
through  aH  its  moods  and  tenses  thus ;  (486) : — 

PEIi^rCIPAL    PAKTS. 

Present,  Am  loved.      Present  part.,  Being  loved.     Past,  Was  loved. 
Past  participle,  Loved. 

Indicative  3Iood, 

PBBSENT    TENSE. 

Singidar.  Plural. 

1.  I  am  loved.  1.  We  are  loved. 

2.  Thou  art  loved.  2.  You  are  loved. 

3.  He  is  loved.  3.  They  are  loved. 

PRESENT-PEKFECT   TENSE. 


1.  I  have  been  loved.  1.  We  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved.  2.  You  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  has  been  loved.  3.  They  have  been  loved. 

PAST    TENSE. 

1.  I  was  loved.  1.  We  were  loved. 

2-  Thou  wast  loved.  2.  You  were  loved. 

3.  He  was  loved.  3.  They  were  loved 

PAST-PKRFECT     TENSE. 

Sign,  had. 

1.  I  had  been  loved.  1.  We  had  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved.  2.  You  had  been  loved. 

3.  He  had  been  loved.  3.  They  had  been  loved. 

FUTURE    TENSE. 

Signs,  sJiall,  mil. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  shall  be  loved.  1.  We  shall  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  shalt  be  loved.  2.  You  shall  be  loved. 

3.  He  shall  be  loved.  3.  They  shall  be  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS  —  CONJUGATION.      127 
PUTURB   PERFECT    TENSE. 

Signs,  shall  have,  vM  have. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  shall  have  been  loved.  1.  We  shall  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  shalt  have  been  loved.    2.  You  shall  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  shall  have  been  loved.       3.  They  shall  have  been  loved. 

^Potential  Mood, 

PRESENT    TENSE. 

Signs,  may,  can,  miLst. — Inflect  with  each. 

Singular.  Plural. 

t.  I  may  be  loved.  1.  We  may  be  loved. 

^.  Thou  mayst  be  loved.  2.  You  may  be  loved. 

S.  He  may  be  loved.  3.  They  may  be  loved. 

PRESENT-PERFECT    TENSE. 

Signs,  ifnay  have,  can  have,*  or  must  have. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  may  have  been  loved.  1.  We  may  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  loved.      2.  You  may  have  been  loved. 
8.  He  may  have  been  loved.  3.  They  may  have  been  loved. 

PAST    TENSE, 

Signs,  might,  could,  would,  should. — Inflect  with  eacK 

1.  I  might  be  loved.  1.  We  might  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  loved.  2.  You  might  be  loved. 

3.  He  might  be  loved.  3.  They  might  be  loved. 

PAST    PERFECT    TENSE. 

Signs,  might  have,  coidd  have,  would  have,  should  Tiave.'^ 
Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  might  have  been  loved.  1.  We  might  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  loved.    2.  You  might  have  been  loved. 
8.  He  might  have  been  loved.        3.  They  might  have  been  loved. 


•  Can  7ia/De,  as  an  auxiliary,  is  not  used  in  affirmative  sentences. 


128  Ei^GLISHGRAMMAR. 

Subjunctive  Mood  (487). 

PRESENT     TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  *  I  be  loved.  1.  If  we  be  loved. 

2.  If  thou  be  loved.  2.  If  you  be  loved.  • 
8.  If  lie  be  loved.  3.  If  they  be  loved. 

PAST    TENSE. 

1.  If  I  were  loved.  1.  If  we  were  loved. 

2.  If  thou  wert  or  were  loved.        2.  If  you  were  loved. 

3.  If  he  were  loved.  3.  If  they  were  loved. 

Imperative  Mood, 

Singular.  Plural. 

2.  Be  thou  loved.  2.  Be  ye  or  you  loved. 

Infinitive  3Iood, 

Present,  To  be  loved.  Perfect,  To  have  beei^  ioved 

I^articiples, 

Present,  Being  loved.    Past,  Loved.    Perfect,  Having  been  loved 

Observations  on  the  Passive  Voice. 

508,  1.  The  passive  voice,  in  the  finite  moods,  properly 
affirms  of  the  subject  the  receiving  of  the  act  performed  by 
the  actor;  and  in  all  tenses,  except  the  present,  expresses 
passively  the  same  thing  that  is  expressed  by  the  same 
tense  in  the  active  voice :  thus,  "  Caesar  conquered  Gaul," 
and  "Gaul  was  conquered  by  Caesar,"  express  the  same 
thing.  Hence,  the  subject  of  the  verb  in  the  passive  voice, 
is  the  object  of  the  act,  i.  e.,  it  is  acted  upon  by  the  actor 
(369). 

2.  Every  tense  of  the  passive  voice  may  be  resolved  into 


*  The  conjunctions,  if,  though,  lest,  unless,  etc.,  do  not  form 
part  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  but  are  placed  before  it  to  express  a  con- 
dition or  contingency  (389).  The  pupil  may  go  over  the  indicative, 
fts  a  subjunctive,  with  one  or  other  of  these  conjunctions  prefixed. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS  —  lEREGULAR.    129 

the  verb  to  be,  and  the  past  participle, — the  former 
to  be  regarded  as  an  attributive  verb,  and  the  latter  as 
a  participle  limiting  the  subject  of  the  attributive  verb, 
which  is  also  its  subject     Compare  the  following : — 

Sad  at  lieart,  he  returned  home. 

Me  WAS  sad  at  heart. 

Admired  by  all,  ?ie  became  vain. 

He  WAS  admired  by  all,  etc. 

500,  The  present  passive  has  a  somewhat  different  office  in 
different  verbs.  In  some,  it  represents  the  act  as  now  in  progress — 
in  others,  as  now  completed.  In  t\i.Q  former,  it  expresses  passively  the 
present  continuance  of  the  action,  just  as  the  present  active  does. 
Thus,  "  James  loves  Robert,"  and  "  Robert  is  loved  by  James,"  ex- 
press precisely  the  same  thing.  In  the  latter,  the  present  passive 
expresses,  not  the  continuance,  but  the  result  of  the  act  now  finished, 
as  a  predicate  of  the  subject ;  as,  "  The  house  is  built."  The  act  of 
building  is  here  represented,  not  as  continuing,  but  as  completed ; 
and  the  result  of  the  act  expressed  by  "built"  is  predicated  of 
"  house." 

510.  In  all  such  verbs,  the  idea  expressed  by  the  present  passive 
differs  from  that  expressed  by  the  present  active ;  the  latter  express- 
ing a  continuing,  the  former,  a  completed  act.  A  continuing  act,  in 
this  class  of  verbs,  can  be  expressed  passively  only  when  the  parti- 
ciple in  ing  has  a  passive  as  well  as  an  active  sense  (456). 

511,  There  is  no  passive  form  corresponding  to  the  progressive 
form,  in  the  active  voice,  except  where  the  participle  in  ing  is  used 
passively ;  as,  "  The  house  is  building  "  The  form  introduced  within 
the  last  fifty  years,  and  now  defended  by  some  grammarians,  viz., 
"  The  house  is  being  built,"  ought  to  be  regarded  only  as  a  clumsy 
solecism.    On  this  subject,  see  457  and  Appendix  IX. 

Exercises  on  the  Passive  Voice* 

EXERCISES — KO.  I. 

Inflect  the  following  verbs  in  the  same  manner  as  am  loved  (507). 
Present.  Past.  Past  Participle. 

Am  commended.  was  commended,  commended. 

Am  taught,  was  taught,  taught. 

Am  told,  was  told,  told. 

Am  placed,  was  placed,  placed. 


130  El^GLISH    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES — KO.   II. 

1.  In  the  following  exercises,  tell  the  tense,  mood,  voice,  number, 
and  person,  and  always  in  this  order,  viz. :  "  Is  loved  " — present,  indi- 
cative, passive,  third  person,  singular. 

2.  In  the  imperative,  omit  the  tense,  and  say  thus :  "  Be  ye  loved," 
imperative,  passive,  second  person,  plural. 

3.  In  the  infinitive  and  participles,  omit  the  person  and  number, 
and  say  thus  :  "  To  be  loved,"  present,  infinitive,  passive.  "  Being 
loved,"  present  participle,  passive. 

They  are  loved ;  we  were  loved ;  she  was  loved ;  lie  has 
been  loved;  I  have  been  loved;  thou  hadst  been  loved; 
we  shall  be  loved ;  they  will  be  loved ;  I  shall  have  been 
loved. 

lie  can  be  loved ;  she  must  be  loved ;  they  might  be 
loved ;  ye  would  be  loved ;  I  could  be  loved ;  thou  mayst 
have  been  loved  ;  it  may  have  been  loved.  If  I  be  loved. 
Be  thou  loved ;  you  be  loved.  To  be  loved.  Loved ;  having 
been  loved ;  being  loved. 

4.  Put  the  above  exercises,  first  in  the  negative  form,  and  then,  in 
the  indicative  and  potential  moods,  in  the  interrogative  form,  as  di- 
rected (499  and  503). 

EXERCISES — NO.  III. 

Change  the  exercises  (497,  II. ;  498)  into  the  passive  form.  Write 
them  out,  and  then  parse  them  ;  thus,  "  We  are  loved  by  him,"  etc. 
Put  each  example  in  the  negative  form,  and  those  in  the  indicative  of 
potential,  in  the  interrogative  form,  as  directed  (499  and  502). 

lAst  of  Irregular  Verbs, 
512.  An  Irregular  verb  is  one  that  does  not 
form  its  past  tense  in  the  indicative  active,  and  its 
past  participle^  Iby  adding  ed  to  the  present. 

^13,  %*  The  following  list  comprises  nearly  all  the  irregular 
verbs  in  the  language.  Those  conjugated  regularly,  as  well  as  irregu- 
larly, are  marked  with  an  r»  When  two  forms  are  given,  the  first 
\b  most  used. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS  —  IRIIEGULAR 


131 


They  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  three  classes  : 
1.  Those  which  have  only  one  fonn  for  the  three  parts  given ; 
nz. : 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Participle. 

Bet 

bet  r 

bet  r 

Burst 

burst 

burst 

Cast 

cast 

cast 

Cost 

cost 

cost 

Cut 

cut 

cut 

Hit 

hit 

hit 

Hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

Knit 

knit  r 

knit  r 

Let 

let 

let 

Put 

put 

put 

Quit 

quit  r 

quit  r 

Rid 

rid 

rid 

Set,  he- 

set,  le- 

set,  be- 

Shed 

shed 

shed 

Shred 

shred 

shred 

Shut 

shut 

shut 

Slit 

slit 

slit,  slitted 

Spit 

spit,  (spat,  obsolete) 

spit 

Split 

split 

split 

Spread,  be- 

spread,  be- 

spread,  be- 

Sweat 

r  sweat 

r  sweat 

Thrust 

thrust 

thrust 

Wet 

r  wet 

r  wet 

Whet 

r  whet  ^ 

r  whet 

2.  Those  which  have  tivo  fortns  tor  the  parts  given  ;  viz 

Abide 

abode 

abode 

Beat 

beat 

beaten,  beat 

Bend 

bent  r 

bent  r 

Bereave 

r  bereft 

r  bereft 

Beseech 

besought 

besought 

Betide 

r  betid 

r  betid 

Bless 

r  blest 

r  blest 

Bind,  UTi- 

bound,  tfT*. 

bound,  un- 

Bleed 

bled 

bled 

Breed 

bred 

bred 

Brmg 

brought 

brought 

132 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Present. 

Past 

Past  Participle, 

Build,  ra- 

built,  re-  r 

built,  re-  r 

Burn 

r  burnt 

r  burnt 

Buy 

bought 

bought 

Catch 

caught  r 

caught  r 

Cling 

clung 

clung 

Come,  le- 

came,  fee- 

come,  he- 

Creep 

crept 

.  crept 

Deal 

dealt  r 

dealt  r 

Dig 

dug  r 

dug  r 

Dream 

r  dreamt 

V  dreamt 

Dress 

V  drest 

r  drest 

DweU 

dwelt  r 

dwelt  r 

Feed 

fed 

fed 

Feel 

felt 

felt 

Fight 

•  fought 

fought 

Find 

found 

found 

Flee' 

fled 

*    fled 

Fling 

flung 

flung 

Gild 

r  gilt 

r  gilt 

Gird,  he-  en. 

r  girt,  he-  en- 

r  girt,  be-  en- 

Grind 

ground 

ground 

Hang 

hung 

hung 

Have 

had 

had 

Hear 

heard 

heard 

Hold,  le-  loitTi- 

held,  he-  vith- 

held,  holden,  &«s  lOit/^ 

Keep 

kept 

kept 

Kneel 

r  knelt 

knelt  r 

Lay,  be- 

laid, fee- 

laid,  fee- 

head,  mia- 

led,  mis- ' 

led,  mis- 

Lean 

r  leant 

r  leant 

Leap 

r  leapt 

r  leapt 

Learn 

V  learnt 

r  learnt 

Leave 

left 

left 

Lend 

lent 

lent 

Lie 

lied 

lied 

Light 

r  lit 

r  lit 

Lose 

lost 

lost 

Make 

made 

made 

Mean 

meant 

meant 

Meet 

met 

met 

Pass 

r  past 

r  past 

ETYMOLOGY  —  IRREGULAR  VERBS, 


133 


Present 

Past, 

Pay,  re- 

paid,  re- 

Pen,  to  inclose 

r  pent 

Rap 

r  rapt 

Read 

read 

Rend 

rent 

Ride 

rode 

Run 

ran 

^ay 

said 

Seek 

songht 

Sell 

sold 

Send 

sent 

Shine 

shone  r 

Shoe 

shod 

Shoot 

shot 

Sit 

sat 

Sleep 

slept 

Sling 

slung 

Slink 

slunk 

Smell 

r  smelt 

Speed 

sped 

Spell 

r  spelt 

Spend,  mis- 

spent,  mis- 

Spill 

r  spilt 

Spoil 

spoilt  r 

Stand,  with-  etc. 

stood,  witTi- 

Stave 

r  stove 

Stay. 

r  staid 

Stick 

stuck 

Sting 

stung 

Strike 

struck 

String 

strung 

Sweep 

swept 

Swing 

swung 

Teach,  mis- 

taught,  mis- 

Tell 

told 

Think,  le- 

thought,  &e- 

Weep 

wept 

Win 

won 

Wind 

wound  *• 

Work 

wrought  r 

Wring 

V  wrung 

Past  Participle. 

paid,  re- 
T  pent 
r  rapt 

read 

rent 

rode,  ridden 

run 

said 

sought 

sold 

sent 

shone  *• 

shod 

shot 

sat  (sitten,  obsolete.) 

slept 

slung 

slunk 
r  smelt 

sped 
r  spelt 

spent,  mis- 
T  spilt 
r  spoilt 

stood,  icitTi- 
r  stove 
T  staid 

stuck 

stung 

struck,  stricken 

strung 

swept 

swung 

taught,  mis- 

told 

thought,  he- 

wept 

won 

wound  r 

wrought  T 

wrung  #• 


134                            ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

3.  Those  which  have  three  forms  for  the  parts  given  ;  viz. 

Present. 

Past. 

Past  Participle. 

Am 

was 

been 

Arise 

arose 

arisen 

Awake 

awoke  r 

awaked 

Bake 

baked 

r  baken 

Bear,  to  Iring  forth 

bare,  bore 

bom 

Be&T,for- 

bore,  bare,/(?r- 

borne,  for- 

Begiu 

began 

begun 

Bid 

bade,  bid 

bidden,  bid 

Bite 

bit 

bitten,  bit 

Blow- 

blew 

blown 

Break 

broke,  brake 

broken,  broke 

Chide 

chid 

chidden,  chid 

Choose 

chose 

chosen 

Cleave,  to  adhere 

T  clave 

cleaved 

Cleave,  to  split 

clove,  cleft 

cloven,  cleft 

Clothe 

clothed,  clad 

r  clad 

Crow 

r  crew 

crowed 

Dare,  to  venture 

r  durst 

dared 

Dive 

r  dove 

dived 

Do,  mis-  un- 

did,  mis-  un- 

done,  mis-  un- 

Draw 

drew 

drawn 

Drink 

drank 

drunk 

Drive 

drove 

driven 

Eat 

ate,  eat 

eaten 

Fall,  he 

fell,  he- 

fallen,  he- 

Fly 

flew 

flown 

Forbear 

forbore 

forborne 

Forget 

forgot 

forgotten,  forgot 

Forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

Freeze 

froze 

frozen 

Freight 

freighted 

fraught  r 

Get,  he- 

got,  gat,  he- 

gotten,  got,  he- 

Qiye,for-mi9- 

gSive,for-mis- 

given,  for-  fnis- 

Go 

went 

gone 

Grave,  en- 

graved,  en^ 

r  graven,  en- 

Grow 

grew 

grown 

Heave 

r  hove 

r  hoven 

Hew 

hewed 

r  hewn 

Hide 

hid 

hidden,  hid 

Know 

knew 

known 

Lade 

laded 

laden 

iTYMOLOGY  —  IRREGULAR  VERBS, 


1*3 


Present 

Past. 

Future. 

Lie,  to  lie  down 

lay 

lain 

Load 

loaded 

r  laden 

Mow 

mowed 

T  mown 

Ring 

rang,  rung 

rung 

Rise  a- 

rose,  a- 

risen,  Or 

Rive 

rived 

r  riven 

Saw 

sawed 

r  sawn 

See 

saw 

seen 

Seethe 

r  sod 

r  sodden 

Shake 

shook 

shaken 

Shape,  mi9- 

shaped,  mis- 

r  shapen,  mis- 

Shave 

shaved 

r  shaven 

Shear 

r  shore 

shorn 

Show 

showed 

r  shown 

Shrink 

shrunk,  shrank 

shrunk,  shrunken 

Sing 

sung,  sang 

sung 

Sink 

sunk,  sank 

sunk 

Slay 

slew 

slain 

Slide 

slidr 

slidden,  slid  r 

Sling 

slung,  slang 

slung 

Smite 

smote 

smitten,  smit 

Sow 

sowed 

sown  r 

Speak,  he- 

spoke,  spake,  he- 

spoken,  he- 

Spin 

spun,  span 

spun 

Spring 

sprung,  sprang 

sprung 

Steal 

stole 

stolen 

Stride,  1)6-  ' 

strode,  strid,  he- 

stridden,  strid,  he- 

Strive 

r  strove 

striven 

Strow,  he- 

strewed,  he- 

r  strown,  he- 

Swear 

swore,  sware 

swom 

Swell 

swelled 

r  swollen 

Swim 

swum,  swam 

swum 

Take,  he-  under- 

took,  he-  under- 

taken,  he-  under' 

Tear 

tor©  (tare,  obsolete) 

torn 

Thrive 

r  throve 

r  thriven 

Throw 

threw  r 

r  thrown 

Tread 

trod  (trode,  ohs.) 

trodden,  trod 

Wax 

waxed 

waxen 

Wear 

wore 

worn 

Weave 

wove 

woven 

Write 

wrote  (writ,  obs) 

written  (writ,  i>6«.) 

136  El^GLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Defective  Verbs, 

514.  A  Defective  Verb  is  one  in  wMcli  some  of 
the  parts  are  wanting.  The  following  list  comprise? 
the  most  important.  They  are  irregular,  and  chiefly 
auxiliary : — 


Present. 

Past.                     Present. 

Past. 

Can 

could                         Shall 

should 

Maj 

might                       Will 

would 

Must 

Wis 

wist 

Ought 

ought                        Wit        ) 
quoth                         Wot        ) 

wot 

Quoth 

Imperative — Beware. 

515.  Ought f  originally  the  past  tense  of  owe,  is  now  used  to 
signify  present  duty ;  and  tniist^  to  denote  present  obligation  or  ncr 
cessity.  When  they  refer  to  past  time,  a  change  is  made  in  the  infini- 
tive -with  which  they  are  joined  ;  thus,  Present — "  These  things  ye 
ought  to  do;"  Past — "These  things  ye  ought  to  have  done."  (448 
and  449  ) 

516,  Willf  as  an  auxiliary,  has  wilt,  and  sJiall  has  shalt,  in  the 
second  person  singular.  They  are  both  without  inflection  in  the 
third  person  singular.     Will,  as  a  principal  verb,  is  regular. 

517*  Wis,  wist,  which  signifies,  to  know,  to  imagine,  is  now 
obsolete.  Wit,  of  the  same  meaning  and  origin,  is  now  used  only 
in  the  infinitive,  in  the  phrase,  "  to  wit,"  that  is,  "  namely." 

518,  JBetvare  (properly  be  and  ware,  or  wary)  is  now  used  only 
in  the  imperative,  and  sometimes  after  an  auxiliary  ;  as,  "  Beware  of 
him" — "  We  should  beware." 

519,  Quoth f  to  say,  to  speak,  is  used  only  in  ludicrous  Ian. 
guage  ;  its  nominative  always  comes  after  the  verb,  and  it  has  no 
variation  for  person,  number,  or  tense  ;  as,  "  Quoth  he  " — ■"  Quoth 
they,"  etc. 

To  defective  verbs  also  properly  belong — 

Impersonal  Verbs. 

520,  Impersonal  Verbs  are  those  which  assert 
the  existence  of  some  action  or  state,  Ibnt  refer  it  to 
no  particular  subject. 


ETYMOLOGY — IRREGULAR  VERBS.    13? 

They  are  always  in  the  third  person  singular,  and  in 
English  are  preceded  by  the  pronoun  it;  as,  "It  raim," 

— *'  It  hails,"—''  It  Ulwoves,"  etc. 

l>21.  To  this  class  of  words  belong  the  expressions,  methinka, 
rnethought ;  meseerns,  tneseenied ;  sometimes  used  for,  "It 
seems  to  me  " — "  It  appears  to  me"  etc. 

522.  The  pronoun  if,  preceding  the  impersonal  verb  as  its  sub- 
ject, is  the  substitute  of  some  unknown  and  general,  or  well-known 
cause,  the  action  of  which  is  expressed  by  the  verb,  but  which  caa 
not,  or  need  not,  itself  be  named  (346-4). 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Conjugate  the  following  irregular  verbs  (485  and  513),  stating 
why  they  are  called  irregular.  Make  complete  sentences  with  them,  and 
in  these  tell  which  are  transitive,  which  are  intransitive,  and  which 
are  attributive,  and  why  (32051).  Extend  the  list  at  pleasure  from 
the  table. 

Take,  drive,  creep,  begin,  abide,  buy,  bring,  arise,  catchy 
bereave,  am,  burst,  draw,  drink,  fly,  flee,  fall,  get,  give, 
etc. 

EXERCISES   ON"  THE   PRECEDING   PARTS   OF  SPEECH. 

1.  In  the  follo%ving  exercises,  parse  the  several  words ;  viz.,  the 
nouns  as  directed  (182) — articles  as  (194) — adjectives  as  (225) — pro- 
nouns as  (253) — and  verbs  as  (491  and  496). 

[The  words  in  Italics  are  prepositions,  and  the  nouns  or  pronouns 
following  them  are  in  the  objective  case.] 

The  wind  shakes  the  trees. —  The  apples  fell  to  the 
ground. — God  created  all  things. —  The  heavens  are  the 
work  o/his  hands. — The  sun  shines. — The  fields  are  cover- 
ed with  grain. — The  crops  are  excellent. — The  rivers  run 
into  the  sea. — A  good  man  shows  pity  to  the  poor  (201). — 
Remember  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth. — Truth 
is  mighty. 

2.  Form  a  list  of  ten  nouns  ;  say  something  respecting  each  ;  and 
parse  the  sentences  so  formed,  as  above. 


138  Ei^GLISH     GEAMMAE. 


ADVERBS. 


S23»  Aft  Adverb  is  a  word  nsed  to  modify  a 
verh,  an  adjective^  or  another  adM^erh,  or  to  denote 
some  circumstance  respecting  it ;  as,  "Ann  speaks 
distinctly ;  she  is  remarTcably  diligent,  and  reads 
i!)ery  correctly.'''' 

524.  An  adverb  is  generally  equivalent  to  a  modifying  phrase, 
or  adjunct  (541)  of  the  word  to  which  it  is  joined.  Thus,  in  the  pre- 
ceding example,  "  distinctly  "  means,  in  a  distinct  manner  ;  "  re- 
markably y'  in  a  remarkable  degree.  So,  "  now''  means,  at  this  time ; 
"  then,"  at  that  time,  etc.  Hence,  adverbs  and  adverbial  adjuncts  are 
often  used  indiscriminately  in  modifying  verbs,  adjectives,  and  ad- 
verbs. 

525.  On  the  same  principle  that  an  adverb  modifies  another 
adverb,  it  sometimes  also  modifies  an  adjunct,  a  ^i/i-rase,  or  a 
sentence  ;  as,  "  I  met  your  brother  far  frofn  home  " — "  He  will  be 
here  soon  after  mid-day  " — "  We  shall  go  immediately  after  the 
mail  arrives." 

526.  A  few  adverbs  are  sometimes  used  as  adjuncts 
of  nouns  and  pronouns  ;  as,  "  I  only  [that  is,  /,  and 

^0  one  else]  am  escaped  alone  to  tell  thee." — "  The  women 
also  were  present,"  that  is,  the  women  as  well  as  the  others 
■  >—in  addition  to  the  others. 

The  adverbs  used  in  this  way  are  such  as  the  following :  Chiefly, 
particularly,  especially,  entirely,  altogether,  solely,  only,  merely,  partly 
also,  likewise,  too,  etc. 

527.  An  adjunct,  without  the  word  to  which  it  belongs^ 
is  called  an  adverbial  phrase  ;  as,  in  shorty  in  vaiti, 
in  ge7ieralf  at  most,  at  least,  at  all. 

528.  Adverbs  have  been  divided  into  various 
classes,  according  to  their  signification.  The  chief 
of  these  are  the  following : — . 


fiTYMOLOGY  —  ADVEEBS.  139 


Table  of  Adverbs, 

1.  Manner;  fis, justly,  bravely. 

2.  Place  /  as,  here,  there,  where — JdtTier. 

3.  Thne  ;  as,  now,  tJien,  when,  soon,  often. 
4  Direction ;  as,  upward,  downward. 

Adverbs  express  /  ^'  ^i^^^'*««*o»*  /  ^,  yes,  verUy,  certainly. 

6.  Negation  ;  as,  nay,  no,  not,  nowise. 

7.  Interrogation  ;  as,  how  f  why  f  when  f 

8.  Comparison  ;  as,  more,  most,  less,  as. 

9.  Quantity/;  &9,  much,  some,  little,  enough. 
^10.  Order  ;  bs,  first,  secondly,  thirdly,  next. 

529,  TJierCf  commonly  used  as  an  adverb  of  place,  is  often  used 
as  an  introductorg  expletive  to  the  verbs  to  be,  to  come,  to 
appear,  and  some  others,  when  the  subject,  in  declaratory  sentences, 
follows  the  verb  ;  as,  "  T/iere  is  no  doubt  of  the  fact " — "  There  are 
four  boys  here."  Sometimes,  when  the  subject  goes  before,  it  is 
placed  between  the  subject  and  the  verb  ;  as,  "  A  mistake  ^/i€re  is." 
In  all  such  cases,  there  is  a  mere  expletive.  It  adds  nothing  to  the 
sense,  but  still  it  enables  us  to  vary  the  form  of  expression,  and  to 
soften  the  abruptness  which  would  otherwise  exist.  This  will  appear 
by  omitting  it  in  any  of  the  preceding  examples. 

Then  does  not  always  refer  to  time,  but  it  is  used  to  indicate  a 
certain  circumstance,  or  a  case  supposed ;  as,  "  If  you  wiU  go,  then^ 
[that  is,  in  that  case]  say  so." 

Now  is  sometimes  used  without  reference  to  time,  merely  to  indi- 
cate the  transition  from  one  sentence  to  another ;  as,  "  Not  this  man, 
but  Barabbas.    Now  Barabbas  was  a  robber." 

530,  The  words,  to-dag,  to-night y  to-morrow^  yester- 
ilay,  used  as  adjuncts,  may  be  called  adverbs  of  time,  or  they  may 
be  regarded  as  nouns  in  the  objective  case,  without  the  governing 
word  (838),  or  as  nouns  in  any  case  the  construction  may  require. 

531,  In  comparisons,  as  and  so,  in  the  antecedent  clause,  are 
usually  reck-^ned  adverbs,  because  they  modify  an  adjective  or  an- 
other adverb.  The  corresponding  as  and  so,  sometimes  called  con- 
junctions, are  properly  adverbs  also,  because  resolvable  into  an 
adjunct  (524) ;  thus,  "  It  is  as  high  as  heaven,"  that  is,  It  is  high  in 
the  degree  in  which  heaven  is  high.—"  So  id^  as  I  know,"  that  is,  far 
to  the  extent  to  which  I  know. 


140  ENGLISH     G  R  A  M  M  A  n  . 

532,  So  is  often  used  as  the  representative  of  a  preceding  word, 
plirase,  or  sentence,  in  order  to  prevent  its  repetition  ;  as,  "  To  make 
men  liappy,  and  keep  them  so  " — "  France  is  highly  cultivated — Eng- 
land more  so  " — "  James  is  in  good  health,  John  is  not  so  " — "  I  be- 
lieved that  you  would  succeed,  and  I  told  you  so." 

633,  Therefore,  wherefore,  also,  sometimes  called  con- 
junctions, are  more  properly  adverbs,  because  used  for  the  adjuncts, 
for  this  reason,  for  which  reason,  in  addition  (524). 

Conjunctive  Adverbs, 

d34,  A  Conjunctive  Adverb  is  one  that  stands 
for  two  adjuncts,  one  of  which  contains  a  relative  pronoun, 
and  the  other,  its  antecedent ;  thus,  "  I  will  see  you  when 
you  come."  Here,  zvhen  is  equivalent  to,  at  the  time  at 
which;  the  first  part,  "at  the  time^^  modifies  ''will  see," 
and  the  second,  "  at  ivhich,'^  modifies  "  comer  Again,  "  I 
know  not  hoiu  it  is  done."  Here  hoio  is  equivalent  to  the 
manner  in  which.  The  first  part,  '' tlie  manner ^^  is  the 
object  of  ''Icnow^^  and  the  second,  ''in  which"  is  the  ad- 
junct of  "  is  doneP  In  a  similar  way,  luhere  may  be  re- 
solved into  the  place  in  which  ;  whither,  into  the  place  to 
which,  etc. 

These  adverbs  perform  a  double  office  :  they  modify  two  different 
words,  and  connect  the  clauses  to  which  they  belong.  They  are, 
tvhen,  tvhere,  ivhile,  ivhither,  tvhence.  They  are  also  used 
interrogatively,  both  directly  and  indirectly.  Thus  used,  they  are 
not  conjunctive  ;  as,  "  When  [that  is,  at  whcCt  time]  will  you  come?" 
— "  Thou  knowest  not  wlienee  [from  what  place]  it  cometh,  and 
whither  [to  what  place]  it  goeth." 

For^nation  and  Derivation  of  Adverbs, 
535,  Adverbs  are  either  primitive  or  derivative, 

1.  A  few  adverbs  are  primitive,  or  derived  from  no  other  words 
In  the  language  ;  as,  yes,  no,  not,  here,  there,  now,  then,  etc. 

Many  adverbs  of  quality  or  manner,  are  derived  from  adjectives  by 
adding  l/tj  ;  as,  diligent,  diligently  ;  happy,  happily  (57) :  or  bv  chang 
mg  le  into  ly  ;  as,  able,  ably  ;  simple,  simply.    But  adverba  p-ve  stJ 


ETYMOLOGY  —  ADVERBS.  141 

dom  formed  from  adjectives  in  ly,  the  adjunct  being  used  in  preferenco. 
Thus,  wo  would  not  say,  "  He  acted  manlily"  but  "  in  a  manly  man- 
ner," or  "  Wee  a  man.** 

3.  Many  compound  adverbs  are  formed  by  combining  words 
together,  so  as  of  two  or  more  words  forming  an  adjunct,  to  make  one 
compound  term  ;  as,  indeed,  hereby,  thereby,  wherewith,  tJiereforci 
wheresoever,  nevertheless,  etc. 

4  Some  nouns  and  other  words  are  converted  into  adyerbs  by  pr0 
fixing  a,  signifying,  at,  in,  on,  etc. ;  as,  ahed,  ashore,  aloft,  ahead, 
ustern,  aground,  apart,  adrift,  afresh,  alike,  asleep,  etc.  (190). 

5.  Many  words  are  used  sometimes  as  adverbs,  and  sometimes  as 
other  parts  of  speech  ;  thus  : — 

Much   is  used — 1.  As  an  adverb,  as,  "  He  is  much  better." 

2.  As  an  adjective ;  as,  "  In  much  wisdom  is 

much  grief." 

3.  As  a  noun  ;  as,  "  Where  much  is  given,  much 

is  required.'* 
)resterdayi&'a'&Q6. — 1.  As  an  adverb;  as,   "He  came  yesterday** 
(530). 
2;  As  a  noun  ;  as,  "  Yesterday  is  past." 
3ut  is  used — 1.  As  an  adverb  ;    as,    "  Give  hut  one  kind 
word." 

2.  As  a  preposition  (538) ;  as,  "  None  hut  the 

brave." 

3.  As  a  conjunction  (561) ;  as,  "  He  is  poor,  hut 

honest." 
What  is  used — 1.  As  an  interrogative ;  as,  "  What  is  that?" 

2.  As  a  relative  ;    as,    "  We  speak  what  we 

know."    ^ 
8.  As  an  adverb ;  as,  "  What  [partly]  with  one 

thing,  and  what  [partly]  with  another,  we 

had  enough  to  do." 

6.  Circumstances  of  time,  place,  manner,  etc,  are  often  expressed 
by  two  or  more  words  constituting  an  adverbial  phrase  (527  and 
530) ;  as,  at  length,  not  at  all,  hy  no  means,  in  vain,  in  order,  long  ago, 
hy-andrby,  all  aver,  to  and  fro,  for  ever,  etc.  Such  phrases  may  be 
taken  together  as  one  word,  and  parsed  as  an  adverb,  or  separately, 
as  other  words,  where  it  can  be  done,  supplying  the  ellipsis  when 
necessary.     See  Appendix  L  5, 


Ii2  ENGLISH    GEAMMAE. 

Comparison  of  Adverbs. 

S36.  Adverbs  of  quality,  derived  from  adjec- 
tives, and  a  few  others,  admit  of  comparison  like 
adjectives ;  as,  nobly,  more  nobly,  most  nobly  ;  soon, 
sooner,  soonest. 

The  following  are  compared  irregularly : — 

Pos.  Comp.  Sup.  Pos.  Comp.  Sup. 

Badly,  or  ill,  worse,  worst.  Much,  more,  most. 

Far,  farther,  farthest.  Well,  better,  best. 

Little,  less.  least. 

Parsing  the  Adverb,  \ 

S37»  An  adverb  is  parsed  by  stating  what  part 
of  speech — ^the  class  to  which  it  belongs — the  word 
which  it  modifies — ^its  derivation  and  comparison,  ii 
derived  and  compared.     Thus  :— 

"  He  speaks  fluently." — Fluently,  an  adverb  of  manner, 
and  modifies  "speaks  ;"  derived  from  fluent,  and  compared 
more  fluently,  most  fluently. 

PEELIMINAEY  ORAL  EXERCISE. 

When  we  say,  "  John  runs  rapidly,"  what  part  of  speech  is  John  f 
what  is  runs  (314)  ?  What  is  the  use  of  the  word  rapidly  in  that  sen* 
tence  ?  What  part  of  speech  are  those  words  which  express  the  man, 
ner  of  doing  a  thing  (528-1)  ?  What  part  of  speech,  then,  is  rapidly  f 
Why  t  Can  you  think  of  any  other  words  that  might  be  used  to  ex- 
press the  manner  in  which  "  John  runs  "f — "  Siciftly,  slowly,  well,  ill." 
What  part  of  speech  are  these  words  ?  Suppose  you  say,  "  John  ran 
yesterday  " — "  John  runs  now  " — "  John  will  run  soon  " — what  is  the 
use  of  the  words  yesterday,  now,  soon  ?  What  are  words  called  which 
express  a  circumstance  of  time  (528-3)  ?  Then  what  part  of  speeclk 
are  yesterday,  now,  soon  ?    Why  ? 

What  other  words  besides  the  verb  do  adverbs  modify  (523)  f 
When  we  say,  "John  is  a  very  good  boy,"  what  word  modifies  ^(JoxZ.^ 


"ETYMOLOGY  —  PREPOSITIONS.  143 

What  part  of  speech  is  goodl    Whj  ?    Then  what  part  of  speech  ia 

•oery  f    Why  ? 

If  I  say,  "  John  reads  exceedingly  well,"  what  word  modifies  reads? 
Ans.  Well.  Then  what  part  of  speech  is  well  ?  Why  ?  What  word 
tells  us  how  well  he  reads  ?  What  word  does  exceedingly  modify  ? 
Then  what  part  of  speech  is  it  ?    Why  ? 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Tell  to  what  class  the  following  adverbs  belong — whether  primi- 
tive or  derivative — if  not  primitive,  how  are  they  formed — compare 
if  compared : — 

Justly,  wisely,  happily,  beautifully,  fashionably,  suffi- 
ciently, thirdly,  nearly,  almost,  perfectly. 

Here,  there,  anywhere,  hither,  thither,  yes,  no,  thence, 
somewhere — now,  then,  to-day,  hereafter. 

2.  Form  sentences,  each  of  which  will  contain  one  of  the  preceding 
adverbs.    Parse  as  directed  (537). 


PREPOSITIONS. 


538.  A  Preposition  is  a  word  wMch  shows  the 
relation  between  the  noun  or  pronoun  following  it, 
and  some  other  word  in  the  sentence;  as,  "The 
Love  OY  Money y — "  Come  to  me." 

539.  Of  the  words  related,  that  before  the  preposition  is  called 
the  antecedent  term  of  the  relation,  and  that  which  follows  it  is  called 
the  subsequent  term  or  regimen. 

The  antecedent  term  is  always  limited  by  the  prepositional 
phrase,  which  is,  in  character,  adjective  or  adverbial,  according  as 
the  antecedent  is  a  substantive  or  some  other  word.  (596,  2). 

540.  Instead  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  a  preposition  may 
be  followed  by  an  infinitive  mood,  or  clause  of  a  sentence, 
used  as  a  substantive;  as,  "We  are  about  to  depart" — 


144  EKGLISH    GBAMMAR. 

"  Honored  for  having  done  Ms  duty. — "  The  crime  of  being 
a  young  man.^' 

54:1,  The  preposition  and  its  regimen  united  are  called  the 
adjunct  of  the  antecedent  term  ;  and  the  antecedent  term, 
as  related  to  its  adjunct,  may  be  called  the  'principal.  It  is  usually  a 
noun,  OT pronoun f&n  adjective,  a  verb,  or  an  adverb  ;  as, 
"  The  waters  of  Jordan." — "  Me  with  the  book  in  his  hand." — "  It  is 
good  for  me."  "  Pra^  for  us."  "  He  acts  consistently  with  his  prin. 
ciples." 

Sd2.  The  same  word  not  unfrequently  has  several  adjuncts  ;  as, 
"  He  WENT  from  Boston  to  New  York,  hy  railroad,  in  eight  hours." 
Also  the  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  adjunct  may  be  limited  by  one  or 
more  adjuncts — the  whole  forming  a  compound  adjunct  ;  as, 
"  It  is  CONSISTENT  With  the  character  of  a  man  of  honor."  Here  "  of 
honor  "  is  the  adjunct  of  man,  "  of  a  man  of  honor  "  is  a  compound 
adjunct  of  character ;  and  the  whole,  "with  the  character  of  a  man 
of  honor,"  is  a  compound  adjunct  of  consistent. 

543.  The  preposition  is  so  called  because  it  is  usually  placed  before 
its  regimen,  as  in  the  above  examples.  Sometimes,  however,  the 
sentence  may  be  so  inverted  that  the  preposition  follows  its  regimen 
immediately,  or  at  some  distance  ;  as,  "  Where  echo  walks  the  steep 
hills  among." — "  Whom  did  he  speak  to  ?" 

544,  In  the  natural  order  of  a  sentence,  the  adjunct  follows  its  prin- 
cipal, as,  "  He  withdrew  after  supper."  It  is  often  convenient,  however, 
to  arrange  the  adjunct  first,  as,  "After  supper  he  withdrew  with  his 
friend  who  had  called  for  him."  Here  the  same  sense  can  not  be  given 
by  placing  the  adjunct,  "  after  supper  "  anywhere  else  in  the  sentence. 

545.  Prepositions  may  be  divided  into  classes  wliich  shall  indi- 
cate their  use,  and  in  some  sense,  the  historical  order  of  their  devel- 
opment. 

1.  Relations  of  place.  (1)  Where  a  thing  is  (rest  in)  ;  as  in,  on, 
at,  hy.  (2)  Direction  to  or  from  a  place  (motion) ;  as,  to,  into,  from, 
etc.    (3)  Both  place  and  direction  ;  as,  omr,  under,  etc. 

2.  Relations  of  time,  (1)  Relations  oi  place  extended,  as  in,  after, 
etc.    (2)  Time  merely  ;  as,  since,  till,  during,  etc. 

3.  To  indicate  the  agent  or  instrument.  (1)  Simple  relations 
of  place  extended  [The  mill  is  by  the  river]  ;  as,  "  The  mill  is  turned 
by  the  river.  (2)  Compound  prepositional  phrases ;  as,  by  means  of, 
by  virtue  of,  etc. 

4.  To  denote  cause  or  purpose,  as  from,  for,  Gt«. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PREPOSITIONS, 


145 


5.  To  denote  miscellaneous  relations,  not  easily  classified, 
frequently  by  means  of  abbreviated  forms  of  expression. 
These  may  be  shown  approximately  in  the  following 

Table  of  Prepositions, 


Fh 


Sh 

H  «^ 
OQ  W 

Ah  " 
W 

P4 


2.  Time. 


1.  Place.  <  Motion  to  or  from, 
yRest  or  motion, 
j  Time  and  Place, 
i  Time  only, 

3.  Agent  or  instrument. 

4.  Cause. 
Separation, 
Inclination, 
Aversion, 
Substitution, 
Possession, 
Reference, 

^  Opposition, 


5.  Miscei> 

LANEOUS 
IDEAS. 


He  is  in  the  house. 

He  went  into  the  house. 

Over. 

AtWie  place,  at  the  time. 

Till  noon 

IBy  his  power. 

For  my  sake. 

Without. 

For. 

Against. 

Instead  of. 

Of 

Touching. 

Against, 


The  following  embraces  most  of  the  prepositions  in  conmion  uae : 


"^      List  of  Prepositions. 

TO  BE  COMMITTED  ACCURATELY  TO  MEMORY. 


About 

Above 

Across 

After 

Against 

Along 

Amid    ) 

Amidst) 

Among    ) 

Amongst ) 

Around 

At 

Athwart 

Bating 

Before 

Below 


Behind 

From 

Through 

Beneath 

In 

Throughout 

Beside 
Besides  ' 

Into 

Till 

Notwithstanding  To 

Between 

Of 

Touching 

Betwixt 

Off 

Toward  ) 
Towards!" 

Beyond 

On 

But 

Over 

Under 

By 

Out  of 

Underneath 

Concerning 

Past 

Until 

Down 

Pending 

Unto 

During 

Regarding 

Up 

Ere 

Respecting 

Upon 

Except 

Round 

With 

Excepting 

Save 

Within 

For 

Since 

Without 

146  EKGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

546,  Concerning,  excepting,  regarding,  respecting^ 
and  touching^  were  originally  present  participles  active  of  transi- 
tive verbs,  and  as  such  required  an  objective  case  aftcf  tliem  (801). 
Tliey  may  frequently  be  so  construed  still.  During  may  be  regard- 
ed as  originally  the  present  participle  active  of  an  intransitive  verb, 
having  the  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  nominative  case  absolute  (769) ; 
thus,  "  During  life,"  means  life  during,  or  while  life  endures.  Not' 
withstanding,  a  compound  of  not  and  the  present  participle  witTi- 
standing,  may  be  explained  the  same  way.  Still,  when  used  as  a 
preposition,  the  word  following  must  be  regarded  as  in  the  objective 
case  (818). 

54:7 »  Except  and  save  were  originally  imperatives.  Out  of 
may  be  regarded  either  as  two  words — an  adverb  and  preposition — or 
as  one  word — forming  a  sort  of  compound  preposition.  Of  this  char- 
acter are  the  following :  From  between,  from  beyond,  from 
within,  from  tvithoiit,  over  against,  and  the  like.  Off  is, 
for  the  most  part,  an  adverb,  and  means  at  a  distance  ;  as,  "  Far  off'^ 
With  a  noun  or  pronoun  following,  it  is  a  preposition,  and  means  not 
on,  from,  etc.;  as,  "  Ojf  the  table." 

548.  The  word  a  in  the  sense  of  at,  in,  on,  to,  of  etc.,  has  the 
force  of  a  preposition  in  such  expressions  as  a  reading,  a  hunting,  etc., 
and  msty  be  parsed  as  such.  The  same  word  is  used  as  a  prefix  in 
such  words  as  aboard,  ashore,  asleep,  abed,  afloat,  etc.  (190.)  Better  re- 
gard the  whole  as  an  adverbial  phrase  (535,  6). 

549.  To,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive  mood,  is,  by  some,  regarded 
as  a  sort  of  verbal  prefix  belonging  to  the  form  of  the  verb  in  that 
part.  It  is  properly  a  preposition,  but  is  rarely  analysed  and  parsed 
as  such. 

550.  When  a  preposition  has  not  an  object,  it  becomes  an  ad- 
verb ;  as,  "  He  rides  about."  But  in  such  phrases  as  cast  up,  hold 
out,  fall  on,  etc.,  up,  out,  on,  should  be  considered  as  parts  of  the 
verbs  to  which  they  are  joined,  rather  than  as  prepositions  or  ad- 
verbs. 

551.  Several  words  in  the  preceding  list  are  used  sometimes  as 
prepositions  and  sometimes  as  other  parts  of  speech  ;  as,  thus  : — till, 
until,  after,  before,  etc.,  are  frequently  adverbs.  But  and  save,  fol- 
lowed by  the  objective  case,  are  used  as  prepositions  ;  followed  by  a 
nominative,  they  are  conjunctions.  For  and  since  are  also  used  aa 
conjunctions. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  P  R  E  P  O  S  I  T  I  O  N^  8.  147 

552,  All  words  used  as  prepositions  axe  followed  by  a  substan- 
tive in  the  objective  case. 

Tarsing, 

553.  A  preposition  is  parsed  by  stating  what 
part  of  speech,  and  between  what  words  it  shows 
the  relation ;  thus,  "  The  waters  of  Jordan."  Of  is 
a  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  between  Jor- 
dan  and  waters. 

Here  Jordan  is  the  regimen  of  the  preposition  of;  of  Jordan  is  the 
adjunct  of  wja^er*;  and  waters  ia  the  principal  to  which  the  adjunct 
belongs. 

554.   PRELIMINARY  ORAL  EXERCISE. 

When  I  say,  "  The  book  is  on  the  table,"  what  word  shows  the 
relation  of  hook  to  the  table  ?  What  part  of  speech  are  words  that 
show  the  relation  between  nouns  or  pronouns,  and  other  words  in  the 
sentence  ?  Then  what  part  of  speech  is  on  ?  Could  the  book  be  in 
any  other  relation  to  the  table  than  on  it  ?  It  might  be  off  the  table, 
above  the  table,  under  the  table,  beside  the  table,  etc.  Then  what 
part  of  speech  are  off,  above,  under,  beside  f  Why  ?  When  we  say, 
"  They  live  in  the  country,"  what  word  shows  the  relation  between 
country  and  lim  f    Then  what  part  of  speech  is  in  f 

EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  following  sentences  point  out  the  preposition  and  the  words 
between  which  it  shows  the  relation.  Name  the  adjunct  and  prin- 
cipal. In  what  sentences  has  the  principal  more  than  one  adjunct  ? — 
in  what  a  compound  adjunct?  Frame  other  sentences  containing 
prepositions. 

He  went  from  Boston. — He  went  to  Washington. — He 
went  from  Boston  to  Washington. — We  reside  in  the  coun- 
try.— All  rivers  jBlow  into  the  sea. — He  gave  his  book  to  me. 
— He  gave  [to]  me  his  book. — Flowers  bloom  in  summer. — 
In  summer  flowers  bloom. 

2.  In  the  preceding  exercises,  parse  each  word  in  order  as  directed, 
under  each  of  the  several  parts  of  si)eech. 


148  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


INTERJECTIONS. 

*iS5.  An  Interjection  is  a  word  used  in  excla- 
mations, to  express  an  emotion  of  the  mind ;  as, 
'^  Oil !  what  a  fall  was  there." 

550.  Tlie  Interjection  is  so  called,  because  it  is,  as  it  were, 
thrown  in  among  the  words  of  a  sentence,  without  any  gram- 
matical connection  with  them.  Sometimes  it  stands  at  the  beginning 
of  a  sentence,  sometimes  in  the  middle,  and  sometimes  it  stands  alone, 
as  if  the  emotion  were  too  strong  to  admit  of  other  words  being 
spoken. 

List  of  Interjections. 

557,  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  interjections  most 
commonly  used.  They  express  various  kinds  of  emotions, 
but  in  so  vague  and  indefinite  a  way  as  not  to  admit  of 
accurate  classification. 

Ah !  alas !  0 !  oh !  ha !  fudge !  tush  pshaw !  poh !  pugh ! 
fie !  avaunt !  ho !  holla !  aha !  hurrah !  huzza !  bravo !  hist ! 
hush !  heigho !  heyday !  hail !  lo !  welcome !  halloo !  adieu ! 
etc. 

558,  Also  some  words  belonging  to  other  parts  of  speech,  when 
uttered  in  an  unconnected  and  forcible  manner,  to  express  emotion, 
are  called  interjections  ;  as,  nonsense  !  strange  !  wonderful!  shocking  ! 
what!  hehold!  off!  away!  hark!  come!  well  done!  welcome! 

559,  O  is  used  to  express  wishing  or  exclamation,  and  should 
be  prefixed  only  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  in  a  direct  address ;  as,  "  0 
Virtue !  how  amiable  thou  art !"  Oh  is  used  detached  from  the 
word,  with  a  point  of  exclamation  after  it,  or  after  the  next  word.  It 
implies  an  emotion  of  pain,  sorrow,  or  surprise ;  as,  "  Oh !  what  a 
sight  is  here." 

Parsing. 

560,  An  interjection  is  parsed  by  stating  the 
part  of  speech,  why,  and  the  emotion  expressed  ; 
as,  ''  Oh  !  what  a  sight  is  here." 


ETYMOLOGY  —  INTERJECTIONS.  149 

OJi — an  interjection,  because  used  as  an  exclamation,  and 
expresses  an  emotion  of  pain. 


CONJUNCTIONS. 
561.  A  Conjunction  is  a  word  which  connects 
words,  phrases,  or  sentence^;  as,  "Ke  and  I  must 
go,  but  you  may  stay." — "  Of  him,  and  through 
him,  and  to  him,  are  all  things." 

/>62.  Here,  and  connects  the  words  Re  and  I,  and  but  connects 
the  sentences,  "  He  and  I  must  go,"  and  "  you  may  stay." 

no 3,  Conjunctions  sometimes  begin  sentences,  even  after  a  full 
period,  to  show  a  connection  between  sentences  in  the  general  tenor 
of  discourse.     See,  as  examples,  the  first  chapter  of  Genesia 

564:,  Andf  or^  and  nor^  are  the  conjunctions  most 
frequently  employed  to  connect  words  and  phrases. 

From  the  difference  in  their  use  and  meaning,  conjunctions  are 
divided  into  classes  : 

565.  Conjunctions  are  of  two  classes  :  Copula^ 
live  and  Disjunctive. 

566.  A  Copulative  Conjunction  not  only  joins 
sentences  together,  but  also  unites  their  mean^ 
in{/.    Of  these  there  are  two  kinds  : 

1.  Conitective^  which  simply  connect  the  meaning 
of  two  united  sentences  [words  or  phrases]  ;  as,  "  The  sun 
shines,  and  the  sky  is  clear." 

2.  Contimiativef  which  combine  the  meaning  of 
the  united  sentences ;  as,  "  The  sun  shines  because  the  sky 
is  clear." 

Note. — The  latter  generally  add  a  subordinate  clause,  which 
limits  the  preceding,  or  some  part  thereof. 

567.  A  Disjunctive  Conjunction  is  one  which, 
while  it  joins  two  sentences  together,  disconnects 
their  meaning*     There  are  two  kinds  : 


150 


EKGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


1.  Distributive^  which    simply    disconnect^    or 

distribute  the  meaning  of  the  united  sentences  [words  or 
phrases]  ;  as,  "  You  may  go  or  you  may  stay." 

2.  Adversative^  which  contrast  the  meaning  of 
the  united  sentences ;  as,  "  It  is  day,  but  it  is  not  night." 


Table  of  Conjunctions, 


'And 

Also 

Likewise 

'1.  Connective.     ^ 

Moreover 
Further 
Both 
For 

I.  Copulative.  \ 

'Before  where     except 
Ere       whether  however 
After     whence   as  if 

PI 

When   if             so  that 

P3 

Whilst  because   unless 

< 

.3.  Continuative.- 

Until     that         though 

g 

Whenever           than 

o 

Although    as      since 

1 

Lost      provided 
^  Save      whereas 

g 

\  Ot          nor 

s 

rl.  I>istributive.   ^^.  ,          .^, 

1  Either  neither 

II.  Disjunctive.  - 

fBut* 

Nevertheless 
However 

.2.  Adversative. 

Still. 

Notwithstanding 

* 

Yet 

Whereas 

*  But  as  a  correllative  of  not  only  is  copulative ;  as,  "Wot  only 
the  men,  hut  the  boys  came." 


ETYMOLOGY  —  COlTJUl^rCTIOiq-S.  151 

568,  And  is  the  principal  connective,  and  connects 
what  follows  as  an  addition  to  that  which  precedes.  Most 
of  the  others  connect  what  follows  as  a  condition,  supposi- 
tion, cause,  motive,  etc. 

560,  Hoth  is  an  antecedent  conjunction,  related  to 
and.  When  used,  it  precedes  the  first  of  the  words  or  sen- 
tences connected  by  and,  in  order  to  make  the  connection 
more  emphatic. 

570.  JEither  and  neither  are  antecedent  conjunc- 
tions, related  to  or  and  nor  respectively.  When  used,  they 
precede  the  first  of  the  words  or  sentences  connected  by  or 
or  nor,  to  render  them  more  emphatic.  Sometimes  they 
are  transposed  to  the  end  of  the  sentence  so  as  to  give  em- 
phasis to  the  latter  member ;  as,  "  Wa'fe  that  your  business, 
or  mine  either  f  That  was  not  my  business,  nor  yours 
neither— neither  my  business  7ior  yours. 

571'  Therefore  and  wherefore,  sometimes  called  conjuno 
tions,  are  more  properly  adverbs  (533). 

Parsing  the   Conjunction, 

572,  A  conjunction  is  parsed  by  stating  the  part 
of  speech,  its  class,  sub-class,  and  the  words, 
phrases,  or  sentences  which  it  connects;  as,  "He 
and  I  must  go  ;  hut  you  may  stay." 

And — a  copulative  conjunction,  connective,  and  unites 
the  words  He  and  /. 

But — a  disjunctive  conjunction,  adversative,  and  con- 
nects the  sentences,  "  He  and  I  must  go,''  and  "  you  may 
stay." 

573.  Prelifninary  Oral  Exercise, 

When  we  say,  "  John  and  James  study,"  what  word  connects  John 
and  James?     What  class  of  words  connect  words  or  sentences  1 


152  ENGLISH    GKAMMAR. 

What  part  of  speech  is  and?  In  the  sentence,  "John  reads  &«(! 
writes,"  what  does  and  connect  ?  What  does  and  connect  in  the  fol- 
lowing phrases,  "A  red  and  white  rose" — " A  red  rose  and  a  white 
rose  "— "  Well  and  truly  said  ?"  What  conjunction  connects  the  fol- 
lowing sentences,  "  They  are  happy,  because  they  are  good  f  Here 
the  following  facts  may  be  noticed  (945,  etc.) : — 

1.  When  two  nouns  or  pronouns  are  connected,  they  are  in 
the  same  case,  and  in  the  same  construction. 

2.  When  tivo  verbs  are  connected,  they  have  the  same  sub- 
ject; as,  "James  reads  and  writes." 

3.  When  two  atljectives  are  connected,  they  qualify  the  same 
noun  or  2>^onoun. 

4.  When  two  adverbs  are  connected,  they  modify  the  same 
word, 

5.  When  conjunctiorife  connect  sentences ,  they  do  not  connect 
individual  tvords  in  the  sentence.  Thus,  "  They  are  happy, 
because  they  are  good,"  the  conjunction  does  not  connect  they  with 
tliey,  nor  are  with  are,  nor  happy  with  good  ;  but,  "  They  are  happy'* 
with  "  they  are  good."  So  also  when  they  connect  phrases  :  "  He 
spoke  to  James,  and  to  me  " — "  Of  him,  and  through  him,  and  to  Mm, 
are  all  things." 


EXEECISES  ON   CON^JUKCTIOKS. 

1.  In  the  following  sentences,  point  ont  the  conjunctions,  and  state 
what  words,  or  phrases,  or  sentences,  they  connect.  Sometimes  the 
order  is  so  inverted,  that  the  conjunctive  clause  stands  first. 

2.  Parse  the  words  in  their  order. 

Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man. — The  evening  and  the 
morning  were  the  first  day. — The  memory  of  the  just  is 
blessed,  but.  the  name  of  the  wicked  shall  rot. — If  thou 
faint  in  the  day  of  adversity,  thy  strength  is  small. — 
George  or  John  will  go. — They  will  succeed,  because  they 
are  industrious. — Because  they  are  industrious  they  will 
succeed. — Of  him,  and  through  him,  and  to  him,  are  all 
things. — Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him. 


ETTjJOLOGT  —  co>q-JUNCTio:Ers.         153 

PARSING. 

574,  JParsing  is  the  resolving  of  a  sentence  into 
its  elements  ov  parts  of  speech. 

J 7o.  Words  may  be  parsed  in  two  ways :  EtyTnologically 
(576),  and  Syntactically  (983). 

1.  Etymological  parsing  consists  in  stating  the  part 
of  speech  to  which  each  word  in  a  sentence  belongs,  its 
uses  and  accidents,  its  inflection,  and  changes,  and  deriva- 
tion, if  derived. 

2.  Sf/fitactical  parsing  adds  to  the  above  a  statement 
of  the  relation  in  which  the  words  stand  to  each  other,  and 
the  rules  according  to  which  they  are  combined  in  phrases 
and  sentences. 

Note, — In  the  natural  order,  Etymological  parsing  should 
precede  Analysis,  because  we  can  not  analyze  a  sentence  before  we 
have  learned  the  character  of  the  words  it  contains  ;  and  Analysis 
should  precede  Syntactical  parsing,  because,  till  we  know  the 
parts  and  elements  of  a  sentence,  we  can  not  understand  their  rela- 
tions, nor  intelligently  combine  them  into  one  consistent  whole.  As 
Etymological  parsing  has  to  do  only  with  the  accidents  of  words,  it 
matters  not  whether  the  words  parsed  are  unconnected,  or  in  sen- 
tences. But  in  both  Analysis  and  Syntactical  parsing,  not  only  must 
the  words  constitute  a  sentence,  but  that  also  must  be  both  intelligible 
and  understood  ;  for  no  one  can  either  analyze  or  parse  syntactically 
that  which  he  does  not  understand. 

Etymological  JParsing, 

576,  Words  are  parsed  etymologically  in  the  man- 
ner directed  under  each  part  of  speech,  viz. :  Nouns  (182) 
— articles  (194) — adjectives  (225) — ^pronouns  of  different 
kinds,  viz.:  personal  (253),  relative  (278),  interrogative 
(286),  adjective  (313)— verbs  (491  and  496)— adverbs  (537) 
—  prepositions  (553)  —  interjections  (560) — conjunctions 
(573). 

577".  That  a  pupil  should  be  expert  and  accurate  in  this  exercise 


154  ENGLISH     GEAMMAE. 

is  of  much  importance,  in  order  to  pursue  with  pleasure  and  success 
the  study  of  Syntax,  and  to  gain  a  correct  understanding  of  the  forms 
and  usages  of  speech  in  the  EngHsh  language. 

57s,  A  sentence  to  be  parsed  must  be  intelligible,  and  it  is 
necessary  for  the  pupil,  in  the  first  place,  to  understand  it.  When 
he  understands  a  sentence,  and  also  the  definition  of  the  different 
■parts  of  speech  given  in  the  grammar,  he  will  not  find  much  difficulty 
in  ascertaining  to  which  of  them  each  word  belongs.  This  method 
will  exercise  the  discriminating  powers  of  the  pupil  better,  engage  his 
attention  much  more,  and,  on  trial,  be  found  much  more  easy  and 
certain  than  that  of  consulting  his  dictionary  on  every  occasion — a 
plan  always  laborious,  often  unsatisfactory,  and  which,  instead  of 
leading  him  to  depend  on  his  own  resources,  will  induce  habits  of 
slavish  dependence  on  the  authority  of  others. 

S79.  The  following  general  ijvinciples  should  be 
remembered,  and  steadily  kept  in  view,  in  parsing  every 
sentence,  viz. : — 

1.  Every  adjective  qualifies  or  limits  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun, expressed  or  understood  (195  and  196). 

2.  The  subject  of  a  verb,  that  is,  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  of,  is  always  in  the  nominative  (except  when 
the  verb  is  in  the  infinitive  or  participial  mood)  (315  and 
7G0). 

3.  Every  iwrb  in  the  indicative,  potential,  subjunctive, 
or  imperative,  has  a  subject ,  expressed  or  understood 
(661,  4). 

4.  Every  verb  in  the  active  voice  used  transitively, 
and  every  preposition,  is  followed  by  a  noun  or  pronoun  in 
the  objective  case,  or  by  an  infinitive  mood  or  a  clause  of  a 
sentence  equivalent  to  It ;  and  every  objective  case,  except 
as  in  828,  is  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the 
active  voice,  or  of  a  preposition  (661,  6). 

5.  The  infinitive  mood,  for  the  most  part,  depends 
on  a  verb  or  adjective  (865). 

580.  MODEL  OF  ETYMOLOGICAL  PARSING. 
^'  The  minutest  plant  or  animal,  if  [it  is]  attentively  ex* 


ETYMOLOGY  — CONJUNCTIONS.  155 

amincd,  affords  a  thousand  wonders,  and  obliges  us  to  ad- 
mire and  adore  the  Omnipotent  Hand  by  which  it  was 

created." 

5 51.  Previous  to  parsing'  this  sentence,  the  pupil  may  be  led  to 
understand  it  better,  and  perceive  its  parts  more  distinctly,  by  attend- 
ing to  such  questions  as  the  following :  What  is  spoken  of  in  this 
sentence  ?  How  are  plant  and  animal  qualified  ?  What  is  said  of 
them  thus  qualified  ?  How  is  wonders  limited  ?  What  else  is  said 
of  platit  and  animal  ?  Whom  do  they  oblige  ?  What  do  they  oblige 
us  to  do  ?    How  is  hand  qualified  ?     What  liand?  etc. 

552.  The  length  of  time  necessary  to  parse  even  a  few  words, 
giving  all  the  reasons,  as  in  the  full  schemes  (576),  renders  it  imprac- 
ticable to  do  it  often,  though  occasionally  it  may  be  profitable.  The 
following  brief  method  v^dll  answer  every  purpose : — 

Tlie Definite  article,  belonging  to  plant  and  animal,  and 

showing  them  to  be  limited. 

minutest . .  •  .Adjective,  superlative  degree,  qualifying jp^an^,  etc. 

'plant A  noun,  neuter,  in  the  nominative  singular,  subject  of 

affords. 

or A  disjunctive  conjunction,  distributive,  comiecimg plant 

and  animal  as  alternates. 

animal. A  noun,  neuter,  in  the  nominative  singular,  subject  of 

affords. 

if. A  copulative  conjunction,  continuative,  connecting  the 

sentences. 

it Third  personal  pronoun,  neuter,  in  the  nominative  sin- 
gular, standing  for  plant  or  animal,  and  subject  of  is 
examined. 

is  examined.  .A  verb,  transitive,  regular,  in  the  present  indicative,  pas- 
sive, expressing  what  is  done  to  its  subject  it. 

attentively. .  .An  adverb,  mo^ijmQ examined ;  compared  by  more  and 
most. 

affords A  verb,  transitive,  regular,  in  the  present  indicative, 

active,  third  person  singular,  and  affirms  of  plant  or 
animal. 

a Indefinite  article,  showing  thousand  wonders  to  be  in- 
definite. 

thousand. . .  .A  numeral  adjective,  used  to  qualify  wonders. 

wonders A  noun,  neuter,  in  the  objective  plural,  object  of  affords 


156  EJq-GLISH    GRAMMAR. 

and A  copulative  conjunction,  connective  ,  connects  the  predi- 
cates affords  and  obliges. 

obliges A  verb,  transitive,  regular,    in  the  present  indicative, 

active,  third  person  singular,  and  affirms  of  plant  or 
animal. 

us First  personal  pronoun,  in  the  objective  plural,  object  ol 

obliges,  and  subject  of  to  admire,  etc. 

to  admire...  .A  verb, transitive,  regular,  in  the  present  infinitive,  ac- 
tive, attribute  of  us,  or  object  of  obliges. 

and A  copulative  conjunction,  connective;  connects  to  ad- 
mire and  to  adore. 

to  adore A  verb,  transitive,  regular,  etc.,  (same  as  to  admire). 

that Demonstrative  adjective  pronoun,  pointing  out  Tiand. 

Omnipotent .  An  adjective,  not  compared,  qualifying  hand. 

hand A  noun,  neuter,  in  the  objective  singular,  object  of  to  ad- 
mire and  to  adore. 

by A  preposition,  which  shows  the  relation  between  which 

and  was  created. 

which A  relative  pronoun,  related  to  hand  as  its  antecedent,  ob- 
jective, object  of  the  preposition  by. 

it Third  personal  pronoun  (same  as  before)  subject  of  was 

created. 

was  created .  A  verb,  transitive,  regular,  in  the  past  indicative,  passive, 
third  person  singular,  and  affirms  of  it. 

Exercises  in  Parsing, 

583.  The  following  exercises  are  intended  to  familiar- 
ize the  pupil  with  the  most  usual  forms  of  relation,  so  that 
he  may,  without  embarrassment,  enter  upon  the  more  diffi- 
cult discussions  of  Syntax.  Appropriate  exercises  should 
be  extended,  under  each  rule. 

1,  Two  or  more  adjectives  in  succession,  either  with  or  without 
a  conjunction,  qualify  the  same  word  ;  as, 

1.  A  wise  and  faithful  servant  will  always  study  his 
master's  interest.    2.  He  has  bought  a  fine  new  coat. 

2,  When  an  adjective  precedes  two  nouns,  it  generally  qualifies 
them  both  ;  as, 

1.  They  waited  for  a  fit  time  and  place,  2.  He  was  a 
man  of  great  wisdom  and  moderation. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PARSING.  157 

S,  When  an  adjective  comes  after  an  attributive  verb,  it  gener- 
oily  qualifies  the  subject  of  that  verb  ;  as, 

1.  John  is  wise,  2.  They  were  temperate,  3.  The  sky  is 
very  clear.    4.  These  rivers  are  deep  and  rapid. 

4r.  Whatever  words  the  verb  ^^  to  he''  serves  to  unite,  referring  to 
tlie  same  thing,  must  be  of  the  same  case  ;  as, 

1.  Alexander  is  a  student,  2.  Mary  is  a  beautiful  painter. 
3.  Knowledge  is  power. 

Note. — It  is  necessary  to  the  application  of  this  rule,  that  the 
words  connected  refer  to  the  same  thing  This  connection  is  often 
made  by  other  words  than  the  verb  "  to  be  "  (605  or  797). 

5.  Nouns  and  pronouns,  placed  together  for  the  sake  of  em- 
phasis or  explanation,  and  denoting  the  same  object,  are  said  to  be  in 
aj}2)ositionf  and  always  agree  in  case  ;  as, 

1.  Alexander,  the  coppersmith,  was  not  a  friend  to  the 
Apostle  Paul,  2.  Hope,  the  balm  of  life,  is  our  greatest 
friend. 

Note. — In  parsing  such  sentences  as  those  above,  a  relative  and  a 
verb  may  be  inserted  between  the  words  in  apposition.  Myself, 
thyself,  himself,  etc.,  often  stand  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  words  with  which  they  agree ;  as, 

3.  Thomas  dispatched 'the  letter  himself, 

6.  Myself,  thyself,  himself,  etc.,  often  form  the  objectives 
after  active-transitive  verbs,  of  which  the  words  they  represent  are  the 
subjects.  They  are  in  such  cases  generaUy  called  liefleocive  pronouns 
(249);  as, 

1.  /  hurt  myself,  2.  He  wronged  himself  to  oblige  us. 
3.  They  will  support  themselves  by  their  industry. 

7.  Afljectives  taken  as  nouns  and  used  in  reference  to  persons, 
are  generaUy  of  the  plural  number  (201) ;  as, 

1.  The  yaliant  never  taste  of  death  but  once.  2.  The  vir- 
tuous are  generally  the  most  happy. 

S,  Kouns  and  pronouns  takenin  th^  same  conn^ection,  miLst  b$ 
of  the  same  case;  as, 

1.  The  master  taught  him  and  me  to  write.  2.  He  and 
jhe  were  schoolfellows. 


158  ENGLISH    GEAMMAE. 

9,  A  relative  in  the  objective  case  generally  precedes  the  verh  on 
which  it  depends  ;  as, 

1.  He  IS  a  friend  whom  I  greatly  respect.  2.  The  books 
which  I  bought  yesterday,  I  have  not  yet  received. 

10,  WJien  both  a  relative  and  its  antecedent  have  each  a  verb 
belonging  to  it,  the  relative  is  commonly  the  subject  of  the  first  verb, 
and  the  antecedent  the  siibject  of  the  second  ;  as, 

1.  He  who  acts  wisely  deseeves  praise.  2.  He  who  is  a 
stranger  to  industry  may  possess,  but  he  can  not  enjoy. 

11,  The  relative  what  in  itself  represents  but  one  case — the  nom- 
inative or  objective  ;  but  it  implies  a  reference  to  a  general  antecedent 
omitted,  to  which  belongs  the  other  case  required  by  the  construction. 
When  this  antecedent  is  expressed,  which  is  used  instead  of  what 
(266.) 

1.  This  is  precisely  lohat  was  necessary.  2.  What  can 
not  be  prevented  must  be  endured. 

12,  Whoever  and  whosoever  are  equivalent  to  a  simple  rela- 
tive, and  a  general  or  indefinite  antecedent,  and  in  parsing  may  be  so 
resolved;  thus,  wlioever=aiiy  one  who.  The  same  is  the  case  with 
whatever  and  whatsoever  ;  whatever = everything  which  ;  as, 

1.  Wlioever  told  such  a  story  must  have  been  misinformed. 
2.  Whoever  is  not  content  in  poverty  would  not  be  per- 
fectly happy  in  the  midst  of  plenty. 

Note. —  Whatever  is  most  frequently  used  as  ivhat  sometimes 
is  (377)  simply  to  qualify  a  noun ;  as, 

3.  Aspire  at  perfection,  in  whatever  state  of  life  you  may 
be  placed.    4.  I  forget  what  words  he  uttered. 

13,  Though  a  participle  never  directly  declares,  yet  it  always 
implies  something  done  or  doing  ;  and  is  used  in  reference  to  some 
noun  or  pronoun  which  is  its  subject ;  as, 

1.  Admired  and  applauded,  he  became  vain.  2.  Having 
finished  our  lessons,  we  went  to  play. 

14,  The  2)<i^t  participle  of  a  few  intransitive  verbs  is  som.e- 
times  joined  to  the  verb  **  to  be"  which  gives  such  vm'bs  a  passive 
appearance  (374) ;  as. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PARSIKQ.  159 

1.  1  am  come,  in  compliance  with  yonr  desire.    2.  The 
old  house  is  fallen  down.    3.  John  is  gone  to  London. 
15.  Intransitive  verbs  are  often  followed  by  prepositions, 

making  what  are  sometimes  called  compound  transitive  verbs.  TJie 
verb  and  preposition  may,  in  such  cases,  be  parsed  either  together  or 
separately  in  the  active  voice.  In  the  passive  voice  they  must  be  parsed 
together;  as, 

1.  He  laughed  at  such  folly.  2.  They  smiled  upon  as. 
3.  He  was  much  laughed  at  for  such  conduct. 

16.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  often  u^ed  with  a  participle, 
without  being  connected  in  grammatical  construction  with  any  other 
words  of  the  sentence.  It  is  then  called  the  nominative  absolute, 
or  independent ;  as, 

1.  The  father  being  dead,  the  estate  came  into  the  hands 
of  the  eldest  son.  2.  Whose  gray  top  shall  tremble,  he 
descending. 

1 7*  To,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  is  omitted  after  tJie  verbi 
bid,  flare,  need,  make,  see,  hear,  feel, and  let;  and  some- 
times after  perceive,  behold,  observe,  have,  know,  etc.,  in  the  active 
voice,  but  is  retained  after  the  same  verbs  in  the  passive  (877) ;  as, 

1.  Let  me  look  at  your  portrait.  He  hade  me  go  with 
him.  3.  I  heard  him  assert  the  opinion.  4.  I  saw  him 
ride  past  at  great  speed. 

18.  Verbs  connected  by  conjunctions  are  usually  in  the  same 
inood  and  tense,  but  in  the  compound  tenses  the  sign  is  often  used 
with  the  first  only,  and  understood  with  the  rest ;  as, 

1.  He  can  neither  read  nor  write,  2.  He  shall  no  longer 
tease  and  vex  me  as  he  has  done. 

19.  Nouns  and  pronouns  are  often  the  object  of  a  preposi- 
tion understood ;  and  nouns  denoting  time,  value,  weight,  or 
measure,  are  used  to  restrict  verbs  or  adjectives,  without  a  governing 
word{^2Q)]  as, 

1.  He  gave  (to)  me  a  full  account  of  the  whole  affair. 
2.  Will  you  lend  me  your  knife.  3.  He  traveled  on  foot, 
last  summer,  as  far  as  London.  4.  He  was  in  Paris  last 
month. 


160  EiSTGLISn    GKAMMAR. 

20,  The  conjunctions  than  and  as,  implying  comparison,  ham 
the  same  case  after  them  as  before  them  ;  and  the  latter  case  has  the 
same  construction  as  the  former  ;  as, 

1.  He  has  more  books  than  my  Irother  (has).  2.  They 
respect  him  more  than  (they  respect)  us. 

21,  The  class  of  words,  or  part  of  speech  to  which  a  word  b& 
longs,  depends  often  on  its  application  ;  as, 

1.  Calm  was  the  day,  and  the  scene  dehghtful.  2.  We 
may  expect  a  calm  after  a  storm.  3.  To  prevent  passion  is 
easier  than  to  calm  it.  4.  Better  is  a  little  with  content, 
than  a  great  deal  with  anxiety.  5.  The  gay  and  dissolute 
think  little  of  the  miseries  which  are  stealing  softly  after 
them.     6.  A  little  attention  will  rectify  some  errors. 

22,  Do,  have,  and  be,  are  principal  verbs  when  used  by  them- 
selves, but  auxiliaries  when  connected  with  other  verbs  ;  as, 

1.  He  does  all  in  his  power  to  gain  esteem.  2.  We  must 
do  nothing  that  will  sully  our  reputation.  3.  She  has  a 
strong  claim  to  our  respect.    4.  He  is  at  home. 

23,  An  infinitive,  a  participle  used  as  a  noun,  or  a  clause 
of  a  sentence,  which  may  be  called  a  substantive  phrase,  is 

often  the  subject  of  a  verb,  or  the  object  after  an  active4ran^Uive  verb 
or  preposition  (762  and  802) ;  as, 

1.  Subject. — 1.  To  study  hard  is  the  best  way  to  improve. 
2.  To  endure  misfortune  with  resignation  is  the  character- 
istic of  a  great  mind. 

2.  Object — 1.  He  that  knows  how  to  do  good,  and  does  it 
not,  is  without  excuse.  2.  He  declared  that  nothing  could 
give  him  greater  pleasure.  3.  Of  making  many  books  there 
is  no  end. 

24,  When  a  substantive  phrase  (583,  23)  is  governed  by  a 
verb  or  preposition,  this  regimen  does  not  affect  the  case  of  individual 
nouns  or  pronouns  in  that  phrase,  but  leaves  them  subject  to  the  injlu- 
ence  of  other  words  u)ithin  the  phrase  itself 

If  the  infinitive  or  participle  of  the  verb  '^  to  be,''  or  of  a 

passive  verb  of  naming,  etc.,  is  used  in  tliis  way  without  a  definite 


ETYMOLOGY — PARSING.  IGl 

tvbject,  the  substantive  which  follows  it  as  a  predicate  is  regarded  as 
neither  the  subject  of  a  verb,  nor  is  under  the  regimen  of  any  word ; 
thus,  "  His  being  an  expert  dancer  does  not  entitle  him  to  our  regard." 
The  phrase  "  being  an  expert  dancer,"  is  the  subject  of  the  verb— 
"does  entitle"  but  the  word  *' dancer ,"  in  that -phrase,  is  neither 
tlie  subject  of  any  verb,  nor  governed  by  any  word  in  the  sentence. 
Of  this  kind  are  all  such  expressions  as  the  following :  "  It  is  an  honor 
to  be  the  author  of  such  a  work." — "  To  be  surety  for  a  stranger  is 
dangerous." — "  The  atrocious  crime  of  being  a  young  man,  I  shall 
attempt  neither  to  palliate  nor  deny." — Pitt.  In  all  such  examples, 
whether  the  phrase  be  the  subject  of  a  verb,  or  the  object  of  an  ac- 
tive-transitive verb  or  preposition,  the  noun  or  pronoun  following  the 
verb  "  to  be,"  or  a  passive  verb,  is  properly  in  the  predicate-nomina- 
tive (651  and  799).  The  words  may  be  parsed  separately,  or  the  whole 
plirase  may  be  parsed  as  one  word. 

1.  He  haxi  the  honor  of  being  a  director  for  life.  2.  By 
being  a  diligent  student,  he  acquired  eminence  in  his  pro- 
fession. 

2a»  It  often  refers  to  persons,  or  to  an  infinitiu  coming  after; 
as, 

1.  It  is  John  that  is  to  blame.  2.  It  was  I  that  wrote 
the  letter.  3.  It  is  the  duty  of  all  to  improve.  4.  It  is 
easy  to  form  good  resolutions,  but  difficult  to  put  them  in 
practice. 

26,  Words f  especially  in  poetry,  are  often  much  transposed  ; 
as, 

1.  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians.  2.  On  yourself  de- 
pend for  aid.  3.  Happy  the  man  who  puts  his  trust  in  his 
Maker. 

4.  No  hiye  hast  thou  of  hoarded  sweets. 

5.  A  transient  calm  the  happy  scenes  bestow. 

[As  additional  exercises  in  parsing,  the  little  work  en- 
titled "  Peogressive  Exercises  in  Analysis  and  Parsing" 
may  now  be  used,  or  sentences  from  any  plain,  simple,  and 
accurate  composition,  such  as  are  contained  in  the  reading 
lessons,  may  be  selected.] 


PART   III. 
SYNTAX. 

584,  Syntax  is  that  part  of  grammar  which 
treats  of  the  proper  arrangement  and  connection  of 
words  in  a  sentence. 

585,  A  Sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as 
expresses  a  thought,  and  makes  complete  sense ;  as,  "  The 
boy  studies." — "  You  may  recite  the  lesson  to-morrow." — 
"  Bring  the  book  when  you  find  it."     (589,  591,  660.) 

A  JPropositlon  is  a  single  statement  or  afiirmation ; 
as,  "  Bees  make  Jioney"    Appe:n"dix  VII. 

A  sentence  used  in  another  sentence  to  limit  it  or  any 
part  of  it,  is  called  a  clause  ;  as,  "  Boys  who  study  will 
excel."—"  John  said,  he  saw  Charlesr     (599,  3  ;  635,  638.) 

586,  The  Sentence  consists  of  two  parts,  the  Subject 
and  the  Predicate  (591). 

1.  The  Subject  is  that  of  which  the  aflarmation  is 
made  ;  as,  Snow  is  white. — Birds  sing. 

2.  The  I^redicate  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the 
subject,  that  is,  all  the  second  part  of  the  proposition  (601, 
619). 


Subject. 

Birds 

Grass 

Wise  men 

The  boy  who  studies 

Good  men 


Predicate. 

fly. 

is  green. 

act  prudently. 

will  improve. 

employ  their  talents  rightly. 


•The  Verb  which  makes  the  affirmation  is,  by  itself,  called  th  , 
(vjfiriner, 

387»  The  real  office  of  the  sentence  consists  in  affirming  the 
union  of  tivo  ideas.  Thus,  grass  and  green  are  two  idens  ;  when 
the  latter  is  affirmed  of  the  former,  we  have  the  sentence.  "  Grass  is 
green."     The  word  which  unites  them  is  called  the  copula. 

The  copula,  which  contains  the  affirmation,  is  most  frequently 
included  in  the  predicate  j  as.  *'  Birds  fli/. 


SYNTAX  —  SENTENCES.  163 

Classification  of  Sentences. 

588.  Sentences  are  divided  into  different  classes : 

1.  As  to  tlie  form  of  the  aflBrmation,  or  mode  of  expressing  it. 

2.  As  to  tlie  nature  of  tlie  afltenation,  depending  cMefly  upon 
tlie  meaning  of  the  verb.  ' 

3.  As  to  the  fiuniber  of  propositions  expressed, 

I.  Forms  of  Sentences, 

589,  There  are /(?«r  classes: 

1.  Declaratory y  or  such  as  declare  a  thing  ;  as,  "  God  is  love." 

2.  Interrogatory,  or  such  as  ask  a  question ;  as,  "  Loveit  thou 
me  r 

3.  Imperative^  or  such  as  express  a  command ;  as,  "  Lazarus, 
come  forth  !  " 

4.  Exclamatory,  or  such  as  contain  an  exclamation  ;  as,  "  Be- 
hold how  he  loved  him  !  " 

II,  Nature  of  the  Affirmation, 

500,   Examining  the  three  following  sentences,  we  discover  3 
marked  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  affirmation  : 
Horses  eat  grass.   (Transitive.) 
Birds  jly.    (Intransitive.) 
Sugar  is  sweet.    (Attributive.) 
These  sentences  are  tj'pes  of  the  three  classes. 

1.  A  Tranpsitive  Sentence  asserts  an  act  that  must 
have  a  receiver  (i.  e.,  grammatically,  an  object). 

2.  An  Intransitive  Sentence  asserts  an  act  of  the 
person  or  thing  named  by  the  subject,  which  has  no  re- 
ceiver (no  object). 

3.  An  Attributive  Sentence  asserts  an  attribute* 


*  The  attribute  may  be  an  adjective,  noun,  substantive  sentence, 
infinitive,  or  participle.  This  will,  of  course,  include  the  passive  par- 
ticiple, with  the  verb  to  he,  commonly  called  the  passive  verb,  or 
passive  voice  oi^e  transitive  verb. 


164  EKGLISH    GEAMMAR. 

of  the  subject,  and  is  connected  by  the  verb  to  he,  or  some 
other  attributive  verb  (604). 

Note.— In  Transitive  and  Attributive  sentences  there  is  what 
some  grammarians  call  a  third  %)art ;  in  the  one  it  consists  of  the 
object  word  and  its  dependents ;  in  the  other,  of  the  attribute  and 
its  limiters.  These— object  and  attribute — we  prefer  to  regard  as 
subordinate  elements,  which  may  themselves  be  limited  ;  and  as 
tliey  complete  the  proposition,  we  may  term  them  complementary 
elements  (596, 1). 

Ill,  Number  of  Propositions, 

S91.  Sentences^  according  to  the  number  of  pro- 
positions they  contain,  are  of  two  classes,  single  and  com- 
pound, 

1.  A  single  sentence  expresses  only  one  proposition. 

2.  A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more 

single  sentences  or  propositions  connected  together  (656). 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  this  classification,  a  sentence  may  assert  of 
ttvo  or  more  subjects  ;  as,  "  Jo7m  and  James  study,"  or  may  contain 
a  limiting  clause  ;  as,  "  The  boy  who  studies  will  improve  ;"  "  I  will 
go  when  the  cars  go  ;"  and  still  be  a  single  sentence. 

The  parts  of  a  compound  sentence  (independent  in 
grammatical  construction)  are  called  members  (656,  2). 

t^92.  Single  sentences  may  be  distributed  into 
three  classes  (599). 

1.  Those  containing  one  subject,  one  verb,  and  (if  trans- 
itive or  attributive)  one  object  or  attribute,  called  simple 
sentences ;  as,  "  The  girl  reads  "  (the  book). 

2.  Composite^  having  two  or  more  of  any  of  these 
parts,  said  to  be  compound  in  the  part  thus  affected ;  as, 
^'John  and  James  brought  it." — "  She  speaks  and  writes" — 
"  Horses  eat  hay  and  oats" — "  He  is  brave  and  gentle." 

3.  Containing  a  limiting  clause,  called  complex  sen- 
tences ;  as,  "  I  will  buy  the  book  if  it  is  a  g^d  one"  (635). 


SYNTAX  —  SENTENCES.  165 


SENTENCE,  i 


r  Simple  (or  pure).       „ 

Single.        j  Composite I  - 

iComplex.  I 

p  ^  )  Members  coordinate. 

I  Members  logically  dependent 


Subject. 
Allirmer. 
Object. 
Attribute. 


Compound  sentences  are  .to  be  separated,  in  analy- 
s%  into  their  members,  and  each  member  treated  as  a 
single  sentence.  Any  member  considered  by  itself  may 
have  any  of  the  distinctions  noticed  in  single  sentences. 

SOS.  1.  A  phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put 
together,  but  not  containing  an  affirmation  or  making 
complete  sense;  as,  "In  truth" — "In  a  word" 

2.  The  term  phrase,  in  grammar,  is  now  generally  limited  to  the 
preposition  and  its  regimen,  as  an  adjunct  of  the  antecedent 
term.  (541).  Some  grammarians,  however,  apply  this  term  to  infini- 
tive and  participial  clauses. 

3.  A  substantive  clause  is  one  which,  in  the  construction  of  a 
sentence,  is  equivalent  to  a  noun  or  substantive,  being  1.  The  sub- 
ject of  a  verb ;  as,  "  To  do  good  is  to  be  happy."  2.  The  object 
of  a  transitive  verb  (320,  1);  as,  ''To  do  good  forget  not."  3.  The 
object  of  a  preposition  (540) ;  as,  "  By  pursuing  this  course  he  suc- 
ceeded." 4.  The  attribute  after  an  attributive  verb  (604) ;  as,  "  He 
appears  to  be  doing  well." 


Elements  of  the  Sentence. 

594,  Any  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  performing  a  specific 


*  The  sub-division  of  compound  sentences  given  in  the  scheme, 
comprises,  1st  (with  members  coordinate),  those  that  are  both  gram- 
matically and  logically  independent  of  each  other ;  2d,  (logically  de- 
pendent), those  in  which  one  or  more  members  represent  a  purpose  or 
end,  or  some  logical  sequence  of  the  leading  member,  but  do  not  per- 
form the  office  of  an  adjunct  clause ;  as,  "  I  shall  go  home  to-morrow, 
for  I  have  8om>e  work  to  do." 


166 


ENGLISH     GRAMMAR, 


office  is  called  an  element.     Some  elements  are  essential 
to  the  very  existence  of  the  sentence.     These  are  called 
principal  elements.    All  others  are  suhordinate  and 
af  tendant  elements. 
595.  TJie  principal  elements  are, 

1.  Subjective^ — tlie  noun,  pronoun,  or  clause,  of  which  the  aflBi* 
ation  is  made. 

2.  Affirmative, — ^the  verb  making  the  aflBrmation. 
596»  The  subordinate  eleme^its  are, 

1.  Complementary, — the  object  or  attribute,  m  transitive 
and  attributive  sentences ;  and 

2.  Adjunctive , — words,  phrases,  or  clauses  used  to  lhnit,Vika 
adjectives  and  adverbs. 

507.  Attendant  elements  are  conjunctions,  exple^ 
tives  (529),  and  words  of  euphony. 

The  following  classification  exhibits  all  the  sentential 
elements : 


ELEMENTS 

OF  THE 

SENTENCE. 


f  Principal. 


Subordinate. 


( Subjective. 
\  Affirmative. 
( Complementary. 

{Adjunctive. 


I  Objective. 
\  Attributive, 
j  Adnominal. 
( Adverbial. 


.Attendant  Elements. 


Note. — In  the  analysis  of  a  sentence,  the  larger  oflBces  must  be 
jtated  before  the  specific  uses  and  connections  of  the  separate  woixls. 


I.  Analysis  of  Sentences. 

598,  Preliminary  Remarks. — The  subject  of  Analysis  here 
introduced  will  be  found  to  be  an  important  preparation  for  the  Con- 
struction OP  sentences  (660,  etc.).  After  the  pupil  has  become 
familiar  with  this  portion,  the  Analysis  of  two  or  three  sentences 


SYNTAX— ANALYSIS.  167 

daily  will  be  an  amusement  rather  than  a  task.  He  should  begin  of 
course  with  sentences  of  the  simplest  character,  gradually  advancing 
to  those  that  are  more  complex.  For  this  puriwse,  sentences  may 
he  selected  from  any  "  Heading  hook  "  of  easy  lessons,  or  from  "  Par- 
sing Exercises  "  (583),  or  from  the  little  work  entitled  *'  Progressive 
Exercises  in  Analysis  and  Parsing,"  adapted  to  this  Grammar. 
At  first,  the  teacher  may  direct  the  attention  of  the  pupil  orally  to 
the  order  of  Analysis  by  such  questions  as  the  following  :  What  is 
a  sentence  ? — Is  this  sentence  ["  Qod  is  good  "]  single  or  compound  ? 
— Why  single  ? — What  are  the  parts  of  a  sentence  (586)  ? — What  is 
the  subject  of  a  sentence  (586.  1.)  ? — Of  whom  does  this  sentence 
aflSrm  ? — Then,  what  word  is  the  subject  of  this  sentence? — What  is 
the  predicate  of  a  sentence  (586.  3.) — What  is  here  affirmed  of  the 
subject  "  God  "  ? — Then  what  is  the  predicate  in  tliis  sentence  ?— Of 
how  many  parts  does  the  predicate  consist  (601)  ? — What  are  they  ? 
— In  this  predicate,  what  word  is  the  attribute  ? — What  the  copula  ? 
What  is  the  verb  called  when  used  as  a  copula  only  (604)  ?  What 
are  the  verbs  commonly  used  as  copulatives  (605)  ?  Having,  in  some 
such  away  as  this,  conducted  the  analysis  of  simple  sentences  till  the 
pupil  has  become  familiar  with  it,  the  same,  or  a  similar  process  may 
be  pursued  with  sentences  in  which  the  subject  or  the  predicate  is 
modified  ;  and  so  with  sentences  having  a  compound  subject  (613),  or 
a  compound  predicate  (627) ;  and  then  proceed  to  compound  sentences 
(656),  and  to  limiting  clauses,  etc,  (635).  After  a  few  trials  of  this 
kind,  the  pupil  will  be  able  to  analyze  sentences  vdthout  the  aid  of 
questions,  and  do  it  more  rapidly  and  satisfactorily  :  thus  "  God  is 
good."  This  is  a  single,  attributive,  declaratory  sentence  ;  it  affirms 
of  "  God  "  that  he  "  is  good  y"  therefore,  "  God  "  is  the  subject ;  and 
"  is  good,"  the  predicate.  In  this  predicate, "  good"  is  the  attribute,  and 
"  is  "  the  copula  ;  it  is  therefore  here  an  attributive  verb  (604). 

Single  Sentences, 

599,  Single  sentences  (expressing  only  one 
complete  proposition)  are  of  three  kinds. 

1.  Simple^  containing  but  one  subject,  one  affirmer, 
and,  if  transitive  or  attributive,  one  object  or  attribute. 

In  its  most  elementary  form,  these  words  are  unmodified  by  amy 
other ;  as, 

Horses  run.     John  strikes  Thomas.     Sugar  is  sweet. 

The  simple  sentence  may  be  enlarged,    1.  By  an  adjunct 


168  ENGLISH     GEAMMAB. 

word,  or  plirase,  in  anj  or  all  of  its  parts  ;  as,  "  Wise  men  use  rightly 
their  time.  2.  By  the  substitution  of  a  clause  for  its  subject,  object, 
or  attribute  ;  as,  "  To  be  angry  is  to  he  mad.*'  "  That  men  should  lie 
is  base." 

2.  The  single  sentence  may  have  two  or  more  suh- 
jects,  afjirmers,  objects,  or  attributes,  or  any  or 
all  of  these  may  be  compound  ;  as,  ^^Time  and  tide  wait 
for  no  man." — ''Henry  and  John  lift  the  table." — ''John  and 
his  sister  study  and  recite  grammar  and  arithmetic" — "  The 
sky  is  hright  and  clear"  - 

3.  The  complex  sentence  is  a  single  sentence,  con- 
taining a  subordinate  or  dependent  clause,  wliicli 
limits  the  principal  clause,  or  some  part  of  it ;  as,  "  The  boy 
who  studies  will  excel." — "  If  he  study,  he  will  improve  " 
(635). 

Observations  on  the  Single  Sentence, 

600,  1.  The  subject  of  a  verb  or  sentence  is  com- 
monly a  noun  or  a  pronoun ;  as,  "God  is  good;  he 
does  good."  Also,  it  may  be  an  infinitive  with  {seq.) 
or  without  a  subject  (394),  a  participial  noun  (462), 
a  substantive  phrase  (593),  or  a  clause  of  a  sen- 
tence (635) ;  as,  "To  lie  is  base." — "For  us  to  lie  is  base." 
— "Lying  is  base." — "To  do  wrong  knowingly  is  base." — 
"That  men  should  lie  is  base"  (645). 

2.  When  the  infinitive  with  a  subject  in  the  objective  case 
(872)  is  used  as  the  subject  of  a  proposition,  it  is  introduced  by  the 
particle  for  ;  as,  "  For  us  to  lie  is  base." 

3.  When  a  clause  of  a  sentence,  consisting  of  a  finite  verb 
(761)  and  its  subject,  is  used  as  the  subject  of  a  proposition,  it 
is  introduced  by  the  conjunction  that ;  as,  "  That  men  should  lie  is 
base." 

4.  When  the  infinitive,  or  the  clause  of  a  sentence,  as  the  sub- 
ject, follows  the  verb,  the  pronoun  it  precedes  it,  referring  to  the  sub- 
ject (246.  2,  4.) ;  as,  "  It  is  base  that  men  sitould  lie" — " It  is  base  to 
lie." — "  It  is  base/<?r  us  to  lie." 

001,  The  predicate  (that  which  is  affirmed  of  the 


SYNTAX  —  ANALYSIS.  169 

Btibject)  properly  consists  of  two  parts — the  attribute 
afBrmed  of  the  subject,  and  the  copula  by  which  the 
affirmation  is  made.     (586). 

Thus,  in  the  sentence,  **  God  is  love,"  *•  God'^  is  the  subject,  and 
•'  is  Zoue  "  is  the  predicate,  in  which  •*  iove  "  is  the  attribute,  and  "  is '' 
the  copula. 

Note. — The  name  of  a  person  or  thing  addressed  forms  no 
part  of  the  sentence;  as,  ** Lazarus,  come  forth." 

602.  The  attribute  and  copula  ore  often  expressed  by  one 
word,  which  in  that  case  must  always  be  a  verb;  as,  •'  The  fire 
burns  " = '  *  The  fire  is  burning. " 

603.  The  predicate  may  be  a  noun  or  pronoun, 
an  adjective f  sometimes  a  preposition  with  its 
case,  or  an  adverb — also  an  infinitive,  or  clause 

of  a  sentence,  connected  with  the  subject  by  a  copula — 
see  examples  (621  and  622) ;  or  it  may  be  a  Verb,  which 
includes  in  itself  both  attribute  and  copula  (602). 

604.  When  a  rerb  does  not  complete  the  predicate,  but  is  used  as 
a  copula  only,  it  is  called  an  attributive  verb;  as,  "Homo  is 
sweet."    (319). 

605.  The  attributive  verbs  are  such  as  to  be,  to  become,  to  seem,  to 
appear,  and  the  passives  of  deem,  style,  call,  name,  consider,  etc. 

606.  The  verbs  to  be,  to  appear,  are  sometimes  also  used  as  in- 
transitives  ;  as,  "There  are  lions  in  Alrica"=" Lions  are  in  Africa." 
— "  The  stars  appear."  When  so  used,  and  the  subject  is  placed  after 
the  verb,  the  sentence  is  introduced  by  the  word  there  (529),  as  in  the 
first  example. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  following,  point  out  which  are  sentences,  and  why — ^which 
are  phrases,  and  why. 

2.  In  the  sentences,  what  is  the  subject,  and  why  ?  What  is  the 
predicate,  and  why.  Also,  which  predicates  are  made  by  oMriMUlvt 
verbs. 

Snow  is  white. — Ice  is  cold. — Birds  fly.— Roses  blossom. 
— The  tree  is  tall. — The  fields  are  green. — Grass  grows.— 
To  say  nothing. — Man   is   mortal. — God   is  immortal. — 


170  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Home  is  sweet. — Sweet  is  home. — Who  is  Paul  ? — Has  he 
come  ? — Will  James  go  ? — Are  you  tired  ? — At  all  events. 
— To  be  sure. 

3.  Make  sentences  of  which  one  of  the  following  words  shall  be 
the  subject,  i.  e.  affirm  something  respecting  each  of  them,  and  tell 
whether  the  sentences  are  transitive,  intransitive,  or  attributive: — 

Trees,  birds,  horses,  a  sparrow,  the  stone,  the  thunder, 
the  wind,  the  clouds,  time,  he. 

4.  Analyze  each  of  the  sentences  thus  made,  as  directed  above. 
No.  3. 

TJie  Subject. 

607,  I.  The  subject  of  a  proposition  is  either  gram- 
matical or  logical. 

608,  The  grarriTnatical  subject  is  the  person  or 
thing  spoken  of,  unlimited  by  other  words ;  as,  "  Knowl- 
edge is  power." 

609,  The  logical  subject  is  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  of,  together  with  all  the  words,  phrases,  or  clauses, 
by  which  it  is  limited  or  defined ;  thus : — 

In  the  sentence,  "  Every  man  at  his  best  state  is  vanity,"  the 
grammatical  subject  is  "  man  ;"  the  logical  is,  "  Every  man  at  1m 
test  state."  ^ 

A  relative  clause  may  limit  the  grammatical  subject,  and  in 
such  case  it  is  called  an  adjective  adjunct ;  as,  "  The  boy  who 
studies  will  improve  "^{studious  boy). 

610,  When  the  grammatical  subject  has  no  limit- 
ing words  connected  with  it,  then  the  grammatical 
and  the  logical  subject  are  the  same;  as,  "God  is 
good" 

611,  II.  The  subject  of  a  proposition  is  either  simple 
or  compound, 

612,  A  simple  subject  consists  of  Ofie  subject  of 
thought  (600) ;  as,  "  Ti7ne  is  money." 

613,  A  compound  subject  consists  of  two  or  more 


SYNTAX  —  ANALYSIS.  171 

simple  subjects,  to  which  belongs  the  same  predicate ;  as, 
"  James  and  John  are  brothers."—"  You  and  I  are  friends." 
-^"  Two  and  three  are  five."—*'  Time  and  tide  wait  for  no 
man."  * 

EXERCISES. 

I. — 1.  In  each  of  the  following  sentences  point  out  the  grammaticaX 
subject — the  logical. 

The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom. — 
Wisdom's  ways  are  pleasantness. — The  love  of  money  is  the 
root  of  all  evil. — Human  knowledge  is  progressive. — Right- 
eousness exalteth  a  nation. 

II. — 1.  In  each  of  the  following  sentences  point  out  the  siibject—' 
the  predicate. 

2.  State  whether  the  subjects  are  simple  or  compound  ;  limited  oi 
urdimited.  In  each,  point  out  the  grammatical  subject — the  logical 
subject. 

Peter  and  John  went  up  into  the  temple. — Gold  and 
silver  are  precious  metals. — Locusts  and  wild  honey  were 
liis  food. — In  unity  consist  the  welfare  and  security  of 
society. — Three  and  three  are  six. — John  and  Jane  are  a 
handsome  couple. 

3.  Write  predicates  to  the  following  compound  subjects : — 

James  and  John. — He  and  she. — You  and  I. — The  rich 
and  poor. — Virtue  and  vice. — Heat  and  cold. — ^t'rance  and 
Mexico. — The  sun  and  the  moon. 


*  The  subject  is  here  considered  as  compound,  whether  the  predi- 
cate can  be  affirmed  of  each  simple  subject  or  not.  Thus,  we  can  say, 
*  Time  waits  for  no  man,  and  tide  waits  for  no  man  ;"  but  we  can  not 
say,  "  Two  are  five,  and  three  are  five."  Still,  the  preceding  eX' 
amples — "  Tim^  and  tide,"  and  "  two  and  three " — are  equally  con- 
sidered  as  compound  subjects,  because  they  consist  each  of  more  than 
one  subject. 


X7%  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

MODIFICATIOI^^S   OF  THE  SUBJECT. 

614.  A  grammatical  subject  being  a  nouUf 
may  be  modified,  limited,  or  described,  in  various  ways ;  as, 

1.  By  a  noun  in  apposition — i.  e,  a  noun  added  in  the  same 

case  for  the  sake  of  explanation  (668) ;  as,  "  Milton  the  poet  was 
blind." 

2.  By  a  noun  in  the  possessive  case ;  as,  "  Aaron's  rod  bud- 

ded." (839). 

3.  By  an  adjunct  (541) ;  as,  "  The  works  of  Mature  are  beauti- 

ful." 

4.  By  an  adjective  word  (that  is,  an  article,*  adjective,  adjective 

pronoun,  or  participle) ;  as,  "  The  hour  has  arrived." — "  A  good 
name  is  better  than  riches." — "  Tour  time  is  precious." — "  Lost 
time  can  not  be  recovered." 

5.  By  a  relative  and  its  clause  ;  as,  "  He  who  does  no  good 

does  harm." 

6.  By  an  infinitive  mood;  as,  "A  desire  to  learn  is  praise- 

worthy." 

7.  By  a  clause  of  a  sentence  (635) ;  as,  "  The  fact  that  he  was 

a  scholar  was  manifest." 

8.  Each  grammatical  subject  may  have  several  modifi- 

cations ;  as  "  Several  stars  of  less  magnitude,  which  we  had 
not  observed  before,  now  appeared." 

615.  A  grammatical  subject  being  a  lyronoun,  is 
usually  modified  by  a  notm  in  apposition ;  as,  "  I, 
Paul,  would  haye  come;"  or  by  a  relative  clause,  as  in 
No.  5  above. 

Note. — Pronouns  of  the  third  person,  and  also  relative  pronouns, 
refer  to  their  antecedents  together  with  their  modifications ;  as, 
**  Kebuke  a  toise  man,  and  he  will  love  thee." 

010,  When  the  grammatical  subject  is  an  infinitive 


*  Though  for  the  reason  assigned  (192),  the  article  is  not  properly 
a  limiting  word,  yet,  as  it  shows  that  the  word  is  limited  or  modified 
in  some  way,  it  is  here  ranked  among  the  modifiers. 


SYNTAX  —  ANALYSIS.  1?3 

or  a  participle  used  as  a  noun,  it  may  be  modified  like 
the  verb  in  the  predicate  (630). 

EXERCISES. 

In  the  following  propositions  point  out  the  grammatical  subject— 
flie  logical — and  state  how  the  grammatical  subject  is  modified. 

All  men  are  not  wise. — Tall  oaks  from  little  acorns 
grow. — Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost "  is  a  work  of  great  merit. 
— Wisdom's  ways  are  pleasantness. — The  love  of  money  is 
the  root  of  all  evil. — The  disposition  to  do  good  should  be 
cherished. — The  walls  of  Babylon  were  fifteen  miles  long.— 
The  effort  to  succeed  will  be  crowned  with  success. 

Write  sentences  which  have  the  subject  modified  by  a  notin  in 
apposition — or  a  noun  in  the  possessive  case — or  by  an  adjunct — or 
by  an  adjective  word — or  by  an  infinitive  mood — or  by  a  clause  of  a 
sentence. 

MODIFICATIONS  OF  MODIFYING  WOEDS. 

617.  Modifying  or  limiting  words  may  them- 
selves be  modified : — 

1.  A  notin  modifying  another  may  itself  be  modified  in  all  the 

ways  in  which  a  noun  as  a  grammatical  subject  is  modified 
(614). 

2.  An  adjective  qualifying  a  noun  may  itself  be  modified : — 

1.  By  an  adjunct  >•  as,  "  Be  not  weary  in  weU-doing." 

2.  By  an  adverb ;  as,  "  Truly  virtuous  men  often  endure 
reproach." 

3.  By  an  infinitive ;  as,  "  Be  swift  to  hear,  and  slow  to 
speak." 

3.  An  adverb  may  be  modified-. — 

1,  By  an  adjunct ;  as,  "  Agreeably  to  nature* 

2.  By  another  adverb  ;  as,  "  Yours,  very  sincerely." 

618.  Kmodified gramntatical SMbject^Tegarded. 
as  a  complex  idea,  may  itself  be  modified;  as,  The  old 
Hack  horse  is  dead. — The  first  two  lines  are  good,  the  last 


174  ENGLISH    GitAMMAR. 

two  are  bad.  Here  old,  first,  last — modifpng  each  a  sub- 
ject already  modified,  viz. :  Uack  horse,  two  lines,  two 
{lines), 

EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  following  sentences,  by  what  words  are  the  modifying 
nouns  modified? — the  adjectives ? — the  adverbs ? 

Solomon,  the  son  of  David,  built  the  temple  at  Jerusa- 
lem.— Josephus,  the  Jewish  historian,  relates  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  temple. — That  picture  is  a  tolerably  good  copy 
of  the  original. — Pride,  that  never-failing  vice  of  fools,  is 
not  easily  defined. — The  author  of  Junius's  letters  is  still 
unknown. — Truly  great  men  are  far  above  worldly  pride. 

2.  Write  ten  simple  sentences,  and  point  out  in  each  the  subject 
and  the  predicate.  In  modified  subjects,  distinguish  the  grammatical 
and  logical ;  tell  how  each  is  modified 


The  Predicate. 

619, — I.  The  ^^re^ica^e,  like  the  subject  (GOT),  is 
either  grammatical  or  logical. 

620,  The  gra^ninatical  predicate  consists  of  the 
attribute  and  copula  (601),  not  modified  by  other  words. 

021,  The  attrib^ite,  which,  together  with  the  copula,  forms  the 
predicate,  may  be  expressed  by  a  noun  or  pronoun,  an  adjective,  a 
participle,  a  preposition  with  its  regimen,  and  sometimes  an  adverb  ; 
as,  "  James  is  a  scholar." — "  James  is  he" — "  James  is  diligent" — 
^'  James  is  learned" — "  James  is  in  health" — "  John  is  not  so" 

022,  The  attribute  is  also  expressed  by  an  infinitive,  or  a  depen- 
dent clause  ;  as,  "  To  obey  is  to  enjoy." — "  The  day  is  to  be  celebrated." 
♦— "  The  order  is,  that  we  must  go." 

623,  The  logical  predicate  is  the  grammatical,  with 
all  the  words,  phrases,  or  clauses,  that  modify  it ;  thus, 

"  Nero  was  cruel  to  his  subjects." — "  Was  cruel  "  is  the  grammati- 
cal, and  "  was  cruel  to  his  subjects,"  the  logical  predicate.  Again  : 
"  The  Greeks  took  Troy  by  stratagem." — "  Took  "  is  the  gramtnaticalf 
and  "  took  Troy  by  stratagem  "  is  the  logical  predicate 


SYNTAX  —  PREDICATE.  175 

624,  Wlien  the  grammatical  predicate  has  no  modifying  terms 
connected  with  it,  the  grammatical  and  the  logical  predicates  are  the 
same  ;  as,  "  Life  is  short." — "  The  fire  burns." 

625, — II.  The  predicate,  like  the  subject,  is  either 
simple  or  compound  (611). 

026,  A  simjyle  predicate  ascribes  to  its  subject  but 
one  attribute ;  as,  *'  Life  is  short" — "  TinxQ flies" 

627*  A^  compound  predicate  consists  of  two  or  more 
simple  predicates  affirmed  of  the  same  subject ;  as,  "  Caesar 
came,  and  saw,  and  conquered." — "  Truth  is  great  and  will 
prevail" 

Note. — Both  the  subject  and  the  predicate  may  he  compound. 

EXERCISES. 

In  the  following  sentences,  name  the  subject  and  predicate — state 
whether  the  predicate  is  simple  or  compound — distinguish  the  gram- 
matical and  logical : — 

Man  is  mortal. — Wisdom  is  the  principal  thing. — God  is 
good  and  merciful. — Honesty  is  praised  and  neglected. — 
The  heart  is  the  best  and  the  worst  part  of  man. — The  use 
of  travel  is  to  widen  the  sphere  of  observation,  and  to  en- 
able us  to  examine  and  judge  of  things  for  ourselves. — 
Avarice  is  a  mean  and  cowardly  vice. — Talent  is  strength 
and  subtility  of  mind. — Genius  is  mental  inspiration  and 
delicacy  of  feeling. 

MODIFICATION'S   OF  THE   PREDICATE. 

628.  A  grammatical  predicate  may  be  modified  or 
limited  in  various  ways. 

620,  When  the  attribute  (601)  in  the  grammatical 
predicate  is  a  noun,  it  is  modified — 

1.  By  a  noun  or  pronoun,  limiting  or  describing  the  attribute; 
as,  "He  is  John  the  Baptist "—" He  is  my  friend."— "H« 
is  my  father's  friend." 


176  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

2.  By  an  adjective  or  participle,  limiting  tlie  attribute ;  as^ 
"  Solomon  was  a  wise  king." — "  It  is  a  bird  singing." 

630.  When  the  affirmer  contains  the  attribute  (603), 
it  is  modified — 

1.  By  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective  case,  as  the  object 

of  the  transitive  verb ;  as,  "  John  reads  Homer." — "  I  have 
heard  him." 

2.  By  an  adverb  ;  as,  "  John  reads  well." 

3.  By  an  adjunct  (541) ;  as,  "  They  live  in  London." 

4.  By  an  infinitive  ;  as,  "  Boys  love  to  play." 

5.  By  a  dependent  clause  ;  as,  "  Plato  taught  tMt  the  smil  is 

immortal." 

631,  An  infinitive  or  participle  may  be  modified  in  all 
respects  as  the  verb  in  the  predicate  (630). 

632.  A  inodiffjing  clause^  if  a  dependent  proposition,  may 
be  modified  in  both  its  subject  and  predicate,  as  other  propositions. 

633,  All  other  tnodifying  tvords  may  themselves  be  modi- 
fied, as  similar  words  are  when  modifying  the  subject  (614). 

634:,  Several  7nodifi,ciUions  are  sometimes  connected  with 
the  same  predicate. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  following  sentences,  name  the  subject  and  predicate — dis- 
tinguish  the  grammatical  and  logical  predicate — show  in  what  way 
the  grammatical  predicate  is  modified  in  the  logical. 

Sincerity  and  truth  form  the  basis  of  every  virtue. — The 
coach  will  leave  the  city  in  the  morning  at  sunrise. — The 
coach  will  leave  the  city  when  the  mail  is  ready. — The 
atrocious  crime  of  being  a  young  man  I  shall  attempt 
neither  to  palliate  nor  deny.  His  pretense  was,  that  the 
storm  prevented  his  attendance. — Time  flies  rapidly. — ^I 
confess  that  I  am  in  fault. — William  has  determined  to  go. 
—They  said,  "  Thou  hast  saved  our  lives." 

2.  In  the  preceding  exercises,  show  in  which  sentences,  and  by 
what  words  the  modifiers  of  the  predicate  are  themselves  modified— 
also,  in  which  the  predicate  has  more  than  one  modifier. 


SYNTAX — LIMITIN^G  CLAUSES.  177 

8.  Write  five  sentences  in  wMch  the  principal  verb  is  modified  by 
ft  conditional  clause. 

Limiting  Clauses, 

635.  Clauses  limiting  single  sentences  (or  the  mem- 
bers of  compound  sentences)  may  be  classified  as  to  their 
office  into  substantive,  adnominal  (adjective),  and  ad- 
verbial; and  these  may  be  subdivided,  to  exhibit  their 
forms,  mode  of  connection,  and  general  bearing  upon  the 
structure  of  the  sentence. 

636.  The  following  is  an  elementary  view : — 

j  Prepositional  (1) 
( Infinitive  (2)l 
r  Relative  (3). 
CLAUSES.  \  ^^NOMiNAL.        -j  Infinitive  (4). 


Substantive. 


Adverbial. 


I  Participial  <i5). 

( Causal  (6). 

( Comparative  (7). 


637'  1-  A  substantive  clause  performs  the  oflace  of  a  noon 
(subject  or  object). 

2.  An  adnotninal  clause  limits  like  an  adjective. 

3.  An  adverbial  clause  performs  the  oflBce  of  an  adverb. 
(S38.  The  following  are  examples,  the  numbers  to  correspond 

with  those  above : — 

(1).  That  I  said  so,  is  most  true. — And  he  said,  IJcnow  not. 

(2).  To  die  for  one's  country  is  glorious. — ^He  loves  to  do  right. 

(3).  The  boy  who  studies  will  improve. — He  whom  tlwu  lovest,  is  sick. 

(4).  The  master  directed  him  to  study. 

(5).  Admired  and  applauded,  he  became  vain. 

(6).  He  goes  to  school  to  learn. — He  is  anxious  to  succeed. 

(7).  He  is  wiser  th/in  his  brother. — Choose  wisdom  rather  than  gold. 

639.  Note. — For  more  extended  discussion  of  the  complex  sen- 
tence, see  "  Analysis  and  Composition."  ^ 

640.  In  the  analysis  of  sentences,  the  only  form  of  words  prop- 
erly to  be  regarded  as  a  jfJirase,  is  the  preposition  with  its  regimen , 
but  an  infinitive  or  participial  clause,  when  its  subject  is  unimportant 
and  not  expressed,  may  be  regarded  as  a  phrase  (593,  2,  3). 

641.  The  nominative  absolute  (769,  1)  is  only  an  abbre 
viated  form  of  an  adverbial  clause  (660). 


178  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

642,  The  dependent  or  limiting  clause  may  often  st&nd  first, 
as,  "  Wlien  the  sun  set,  we  left." 

043,  The  clause  on  which  another  depends  is  called  the  lead' 
ing  clause,  and  its  subject  the  leading  subject,  and  its  predi- 
cate the  leading  predicate,  A  clause  which  is  itself  subordinate 
may  he  litnited  by  another  clause  ;  as,  "  I  will  go,  if  you  desire 
it,  after  you  have  considered  the  matter  well." 

644,  In  a  complex  single  sentence,  the  dependent  clauses  are 
usually  connected  by  relatives,  conjunctive  adverbs,  or  con- 
Junctions  (534) ;  thus, 

Relative.—"  That  which  can  not  be  cured,  must  be  endured." 
Conjunctive  Adverb. — "  We  shall  go  when  the  cars  go." 
Conjunction. — "  The  miser  lives  poor,  that  7ie  may  die  rich." 
In  the  first  sentence,  the  relative  not  only  stands  as  the  subject  of 
*'  can  not  be  cured,"  but  also  connects  its  clause  with  the  leading 
clause  ;  when  connects  the  clauses  in  the  second  example  ;  and  that 
in  the  third. 

045.  When  a  clause  connected  by  that,  can  be  regarded  either  as 
the  .subject  or  object  of  the  verb  in  the  leading  clause,  it  is  in  con- 
Btruction  equivalent  to  a  substantive,  and  the  whole  may  be  regarded 
as  a  siinple  sentence,  though  in  form  really  complex. 

046.  The  rvords  in  every  such  clause  must  be  parsed  in  their 
relations  to  each  other,  as  if  the  clause  were  independent. 

047.  The  connecting  word  is  sometimes  omitted ;  as,  "  This 
is  the  book  I  lost ;  I  suppose  you  found  it,"  for,  "  This  is  the  book 
wJUch  I  lost ;  I  suppose  that  you  found  it." 

64:8.  A  coinplex  sentence  may  sometimes  be  con- 
verted into  a  shnx>le  one,  by  abridging  its  dependent 
clause. 

649.  A  dependent  clause  is  frequently  abridged  by 
omitting  the  connecting  word,  and  changing  the  verb  of 
the  predicate  into  a  participle  or  infinitive. 

030,  The  participle  in  the  abridged  clause  will  then  stand  either 
with  its  substantive  in  the  case  absolute  (769),  or  as  a  modifier 
of  the  leading  subject.  Thus,  Absolute — "  When  the  boys  have  fin- 
ished their  lessons  we  will  play ;  abridged,  '*  The  boys  having  finished 
their  lessons,  we  will  play."  As  a  modifier — "  When  we  have  fin- 
ished our  lessons,  we^vill  play  ;"  abrid^edj  "  Having  finished  our  leS' 


SYNTAX — LIMITING    CLAUSES.  179 

6ona,  we  will  play."  Passively  and-  absolutely — "  When  our  work  is 
finished  we  will  play  ;"  abridged,  "  Our  work  being  finished,  we  will 
play." 

OSl.  1.  When  the .  «f fW&f/fe  in  the  dependent  clause  consists 
of  a  noun  or  2^yonoun  in  the  nominative  case  after  the  verb  as  a 
popula,  it  remains  in  the  same  case  in  the  abridged  form ;  thus,  "  That 
lie  is  &  judge  is  of  no  consequence  ;"  abridged,  "  His  being  &  judge  is  of 
no  consequence." — "I  was  not  aware  that  he  was  &  judge;"  abridged, 
''  I  was  not  aware  of  his  being  a  judge  "  (799.) 

2.  The  difference  between  these  two  modes  of  expression  is  this : 
In  the  full  form,  the  idea  contained  in  the  dependent  clause  is 
affii^f^^d  9  in  the  abridged  form,  it  is  assumed. 

G52,  1.  When  the  dependent  clause  is  the  object  of  the  verb  in 
the  leading  clause,  it  may  often  be  changed  for  the  infinitive  with 
a  subject ;  as,  "  I  know  that  he  is  a  scholar  ;"  abridged,  "  I  know 
hUn  to  be  a  scholar," 

2.  When,  in    such   cases,  the   subject  of  the  dependent 

clause  is  the  same  as  the  subject  of  the  principal,  it  is  omitted  in  the 
abridged  form  ;  as,  "  I  wished  that  I  might  go  ;"  abridged,  "  I  wished 
to  go." 

(y53.  When  the  subject  of  the  dependent  claase,  connected  by 
what,  which,  whom,  where,  when,  how,  and  the  like,  and  relating  to 
something  yet  future,  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  independent 
on€f  it  is  sometimes  abridged  by  retaining  the  connecting  word,  and 
omitting  the  subject  before  the  infinitive  ;  as,  "  I  know  not  what 
1  shall  do ;"  abridged,  "I  know  not  what  to  do"  In  this  way  are  to 
be  analyzed  and  explained  such  phrases  as  "  Where  to  go"  "  when  to 
read,"  "  how  to  do,"  "  whom  to  send,"  etc. 

054.  A  dependent  clause  may  often  be  abridged  by  siibstitu  ting 
an  equivalent  qualifying  word,  or  an  adjunct ;  as,  "  The  man  wJio  is 
honest  will  be  respected ;"  abridged,  "  The  honest  man  will  be  re- 
spected."— "  When  the  sun  set  we  returned  ;"  abridged,  "At  sunset  we 
returned." 

655,  Several  dependent  clauses  may  be  variously  con- 
nected with  the  same  leading  clause,  and  abridged  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  above  ;  as,  "  When  they  arrived  at  the  station,  they  were  in- 
formed that  the  cars  had  passed,  an  hour  before ;"  abridged,  "  Having 
arrived  [or,  on  arriving]  at  the  station,  they  were  informed  of  the 
cars  having  passed  an  hour  before." 


180  EKGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Abridge  such  propositions  in  the  preceding  exercises  as  can  be 
abridged. 

2.  Extend  the  following  abridged  propositions : — 

Having  doubled  Cape  Horn,  we  sailed  in  a  direct  course 
for  California. — What  to  do  I  know  not. — No  one  can  tell 
us  where  to  go,  or  how  to  do. — The  war  being  at  an  end, 
the  troops  were  disbanded. — At  the  close  of  navigation, 
many  will  be  at  a  loss  where  to  go. — The  industrious  and 
capable  need  fear  no  want. — A  good  name  is  the  richest 
possession  we  have  while  living,  and  the  best  legacy  we 
leave  behind  us  when  dead. — Of  his  having  been  successful, 
we  have  full  assurance. — Of  his  being  successful  now,  there 
is  reason  to  doubt. 

3.  In  the  following  sentences,  what  connecting  words  are  omitted  ? 
Pay  me  that  thou  owest. — It  is  said  he  can  not  pay  his 

debts. — There  is  no  doubt  he  is  a  man  of  integrity. — I  am 
sure  we  can  never  accomplish  this  without  assistance. — 
That  is  all  you  know. — All  you  can  find  is  yours. — Could 
we  have  foreseen  this  difficulty,  we  might  have  avoided  it. 
— ^I  soon  perceived  I  had  still  the  power  of  motion. 

Compound  Sentences, 
6o6.  A  Compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or 
more  single  sentences  or  propositions  (591, 2)  connected  to- 
gether ;  as,  "  The  man  walked,  and  the  boy  ran."  * 

1.  The  propositions  which  make  up  a  compound  sentence  are 
called  members.  In  the  preceding  compound  sentence,  the  mem- 
bers are,  "  The  man  walked  "  and  "  The  boy  ran." 

2.  The  members  of  a  compound  sentence  are  co-ordinate, 
or  grammatically  independent  of  each  other;  each  will 
make  sense  by  itself. 

*  Under  compound  sentences  are  sometimes  included  such  as  have 
only  one  principal  clause,  modified  by  a  subordinate  clause  or 
clauses.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  the  classification  here  given  is 
more  rational  and  consistent. 


BYliTAX  —  COMPOUN^D    SEKTENCES.  18^ 

EXERCISES. 

In  the  following  sentences,  state  which  are  single,  and  which  are 
compound.    In  the  compound  sentences,  point  out  the  members. 

K  we  have  not  always  time  to  read,  we  have  always  time 
to  reflect. — We  have  not  always  time  to  read,  but  we  have 
always  time  to  reflect. — The  poor  is  hated  even  of  his  own 
neighbor,  but  the  rich  hath  many  friends. — The  eyes  of  the 
Lord  are  in  every  place,  beholding  the  evil  and  the  good. — 
Righteousness  exalteth  a  nation,  but  sin  is  a  reproach  to 
any  people. — Pride  goeth  before  destruction,  and  a  haughty 
spirit  before  a  fall. — Death  and  life  are  in  the  power  of  the 
tongue. — Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him. — 
The  slothful  man  saith,  "  There  is  a  lion  in  the  way." — 
"When  the  righteous  are  in  authority,  the  people  rejoice. 

In  the  preceding  single  sentences  and  members,  point  out  the  ^wft- 
ject  and  predicate,  with  their  respective  modifications. 

657»  Connection  of  3Ienihers. 

The  members  of  a  compound  sentence  are  connected 
by  such  conjunctions  as  and^  or^  rior^  but^  V^tf  and 

the  like ;  as,  "  The  harvest  is  past,  the  summer  is  endedj 
and  we  are  not  saved." 

In  such  sentences,  the  connective   is  often  omitted;  and 

generally,  when  the  sentence  consists  of  more  than  two  members-  it 
is  omitted  in  all  except  the  last,  as  in  the  above  example  (657). 

EXEECISES. 

In  the  following  compound  sentences,  name  the  members  or  clauses 
— name  the  connecting  words — state  which  may  also  be  regarded  as 
single  sentences  (646). 

The  weather  was  fine,  and  the  roads  were  excellent,  but 
we  were  unfortunate  in  our  companions. — Beauty  attracts 
admiration,  as  honor  [attracts]  applause. — Talent  is  en- 
vironed with  many  perils,  and  beauty  [iis  environed]  with 


182  EKGLISH    GKAMMAE. 

many  weaknesses.  —  Time  is  ever  advancing,  but  leaves 
behind  it  the  traces  of  its  flight. — When  I  was  a  child,  I 
thought  as  a  child ;  but  when  I  became  a  man,  I  put  away 
childish  things. — I  will  come  again  and  receive  you  to  my- 
self, that  where  I  am,  there  ye  may  be  also. — This  we 
know,  that  our  future  depends  on  our  present. 

658.  Directions  for  Analysis, 

State  whether  the  sentence  is  single  or  compound ;  tran- 
sitive, intransitive,  or  attributive;  declaratory,  interroga- 
tory, imperative,  or  exclamatory. 

If  single,  its  class ;  name  the  logical  subject  and  the  logi- 
cal predicate. 

[State  the  principal  and  subordinate  elements  (594).] 

Name  the  grammatical  subject. 

Show  by  what  words,  phrases,  or  clauses,  if  any,  the 
grammatical  subject  is  modified  in  the  logical. 

Show  by  what  modifying  words,  phrases,  or  clauses,  if 
any,  each  modifying  word  is  modified. 

Name  the  grammatical  predicate. 

Show  by  what  words,  phrases,  or  clauses,  if  any,  the 
grammatical  predicate  is  modified  in  the  logical. 

Show  by  what  modifying  words,  phrases,  or  clauses,  if 
any,  each  modifying  word  in  the  predicate  is  modified. 

State  the  elements  in  their  order. 

If  the  sentence  is  compound,  mention  the  members. 

Show  how  the  members  are  connected. 

Analyze  each  member  as  a  single  sentence,  by  showing 
its  subject,  predicate,  etc.,  as  above. 

In  analyzing  sentences,  it  will  be  necessary  always  to  supply 
words  left  out  by  ellipsis,  and  to  supply  tlie  antecedent  to  the  rela- 
tive what,  and  to  tlie  compound  relatives  whoever,  whosoever,  what- 
ever, whatsoever ;  making  also  the  change  which  is  necessary  in  the 
relatives  themselves,  when  the  antecedent  is  supplied  (266). 


SYNTAX  —  MODELS    OF    ANALYSIS.  183 

059.  MODELS  OF  ANALYSIS. 

NoTB. — In  single  complex  sentences,  the  whole  sentence  consists 
of  one  logical  subject  and  one  logical  predicate. 

A  dei>endent  clause  is  always  an  adjiuictive  element,  and 
limits  or  modifies  some  part  of  the  principal  proposition. 

In  compound  and  complex  sentences,  the  distinction  of  transitive, 
intransitive,  etc.,  may  be  referred  to  the  separate  members  or  clauses. 

In  declaratory  sentences,  that  distinction  may,  for  brevity,  be 
omitted. 

1.  "  God  is  good." 

This  is  a  single  sentence,  simple ;  it  contains  a  single  affirmation 
(591). 

Attributive,  it  affirms  the  attribute  good  of  the  subject  God. 

Declaratory,  it  directly  affirms. 

Ood  is  the  logical  subject,  because  it  is  that  of  which  the  quality 
good  is  affirmed. 

Is  good  is  the  logical  predicate,  because  it  affirms  a  quality  of  its 
subject.    Is  is  the  verb  or  copula,  and  good  is  the  attribute. 

In  this  sentence  the  grammatical  subject  and  predicate  are  the  same 
as  the  logical,  because  they  are  not  modified  by  other  words  (610  and 
624). 

Or,  more  briefly,  thus : — 

The  logical  subject  is  God. 

The  logical  predicate  is  is  good,  in  which  is  is  the  verb  or  copula, 
and  good  the  attribute. 

The  grammatical  subject  and  predicate  are  the  same  as  the  logical. 

2.  "  The  sun  and  moon  stood  still." 

This  is  a  single  sentence,  intransitive,  declaratory,  with  a  compound 
subject. 

The  logicaj  subject  is  The  sun  and  moon. 

The  logical  predicate  is  stood  still. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  sun  and  moon,  compound,  and  connected 
by  and,  both  modified  by  the  (614,  4,  Note,  and  711). 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  stood,  modified  by  still,  an  adverb,  ex- 
pressing manner. 

3.  "  The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom." 
This  is  a  single  sentence,  simple,  attributive,  declaratory. 

The  logical  subject  is  The  fear  of  the  Lord. 


184  El!q^GLISHGEAMMAR» 

The  logical  predicate  is  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  fear.  It  is  limited  by  the  adjunct 
phrase,  of  the  Lord,  and  shown  to  be  limited  by  the  article  the  (614, 
4,  Note). 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  is  beginning,  in  which  is  is  the  verb 
or  copula,  and  beginning  the  attribute.  It  is  limited  by  the  adjunct, 
of  wisdom,  and  shown  to  be  limited  by  the. 

4.  '^  A  good  man  does  what  (=that  which)  is  right,  from 
principle." 

This  is  a  single  sentence,  complex,  containing  one  leading  affirma- 
tion and  one  dependent  clause,  connected  by  which. 

The  logical  subject  of  the  whole  sentence  is  A  good  man;  the  logi- 
cal predicate  is,  does  what  is  right  from  principle. 

The  leading  affirmation  is  A  good  man  does  that  from  principle. 

The  dependent  clause  is  which  is  right,  and  is  restrictive  of  that  in 
the  leading  proposition,  the  antecedent  to  which,  the  connecting  word 

In  the  first  or  leading  clause — 

The  logical  subject  is  ^  5'o^(?  TTi^Ti. 

The  logical  predicate  is  does  that  from  principle. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  man,  qualified  by  good,  and  shown  to 
be  indefinite  by  a. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  does,  modified  by  its  object  that,  and 
the  adjunct /rom  principle  ;  that  is  modified  by  the  relative  clause. 

In  the  second,  or  dependent  clause — 

The  logical  subject  is  which.  It  also  connects  its  clause  with  the 
antecedent  that,  and  restricts  it. 

The  logical  predicate  is  is  right,  in  which  is  is  the  verb  or  copula, 
and  right  is  the  attribute. 

The  grammatical  subject  and  predicate  are  the  same  as  the  logical 
(610  and  624). 

'  5.  "  There  is  nothing  which  all  mankind  venerate  and 
admire  so  much  as  simple  truth." 

This  is  a  single  sentence,  complex,  consisting  of  one  leading  propo- 
sition, and  two  dependent  clauses  ;  attributive,  declaratory. 

The  independent  proposition  is  There  is  nothing. 

The  first  dependent  clause  is  which  all  mankind  venerate  and  ad' 
mire  so  much,  connected  to  the  preceding  by  which. 

The  second  dependent  clause,  connected  by  as  to  the  preceding,  as 
its  leading  member,  is  \they  venerate  and  admire"],  simple  truth. 


SYNTAX  —  MODELS    OF    ANALYSIS.  185 

In  the  first,  or  independent  proposition — 

The  logical  subject  is  nothing =not  any  thing. 

The  logical  predicate  is  is. 

The  grammatical  subject  and  predicate  are  the  same  as  the  logical. 
There  is  an  introductory  expletive,  used  in  such  sentences  when  the 
subject  follows  the  verb. 

In  the  second  proposition,  dependent  on  the  first — 

The  logical  subject  is  all  mankind. 

The  logical  predicate  is  venerate  and  admire  which  so  much. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  mankind,  modified  by  all. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  venerate  and  admire,  compound,  con- 
nected by  and,  and  modified  by  their  object,  which,  which  also  con- 
nects its  clause  with  its  antecedent,  thing,  for  the  purpose  of  restrict- 
ing it ;  it  is  also  modified  by  the  adverbial  phrase,  so  much. 

In  the  third  proposition,  connected  with  the  second  by  as — 

The  logical  subject  is  they,  understood  (for  all  mankind). 

The  logical  predicate  is  venerate  and  admire  simple  truth. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  they,  or  the  same  as  in  the  preceding 
clause. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  venerate  and  admire  understood, 
modified  by  their  object,  tru,th,  and  that  is  qualified  by  the  adjective, 
simple. 

6.  "  Conversation  makes  a  man  wax  wiser  than  himself, 
and  that  more  by  an  houi-'s  discourse  than  by  a  day^s  medi- 
tation." 

This  is  a  compound  sentence,  consisting  of  two  single  sentences, 
connected  by  and ;  each  of  them  complex,  and  having  its  own  depen- 
dent clause. 

The  first  indei>endent  clause  is  Conversation  makes  a  man  [to]  wax 
wiser.    Its  dependent  clause  is  himself  \is'\,  connected  by  than. 

The  second  independent  clause  is  \he  does']  that  more  hy  an  hour's 
discourse.  Its  dependent  clause  is  \he  does]  by  a  day's  meditation, 
connected  by  th^n. 

(The  words  supplied  are  included  in  brackets). 

In  the  first  independent  clause — 

The  logical  subject  is  conversation. 

The  logical  predicate  is  makes  a  man  [to]  wax  wiser  than  himself. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  the  same  as  the  logical. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  makes,  modified  by  its  object  man, 
';^'hich  is  also  the  subject  of  the  verb  to  wax  (872).    It  is  shown  to  be 


186  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

used  indefinitely  by  a,  and  is  qualified  by  tlie  predicative  adjective 
wiser,  which  is  modified  by  the  clause  than  himself. 

In  the  clause  dependent  on  the  preceding,  and  connected  by  than—' 

The  logical  subject  is  /limself  {in  the  nominative)  (249). 

The  logical  predicate  is  is  (understood). 

The  grammatical  subject  and  predicate  are  the  same  as  the  logical 

In  the  second  independent  proposition,  connected  to  the  first  by 
and — 

The  logical  subject  is  he  understood  (for  a  man). 

The  logical  predicate  is  [does]  that  rnore  by  an  hour's  discourse,  etc. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  the  same  as  the  logical. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  does  (understood).  It  is  modified  by 
its  object  that,  representing  the  phrase  wax  wiser  than  himself ;  also 
by  the  adverb  m(9r(?,  and  the  adjunct  hy  discourse;  and  discourse  is 
limited  by  hour's,  which  again  is  shown  to  be  indefinite  by  the  article 
an. 

In  the  clause  dependent  on  the  preceding,  and  connected  by  than — 

The  logical  subject  is  lie  {a  man)  understood. 

The  logical  predicate  is  [does']  by  a  day's  meditation. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  the  same  as  the  logical. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  does  (understood  as  before),  modified 
by  the  adjunct  by  meditation  ;  meditation  is  limited  by  day's,  and 
that  is  shown  to  be  indefinite  by  the  article  a. 

7.  "  The  minutest  plant  or  animal,  if  attentively  exam- 
ined, affords  a  thousand  wonders,  and  obliges  us  to  admire 
and  adore  the  Omnipotent  hand  by  which  it  was  created." 

This  is  a  single  sentence,  complex,  consisting  of  one  independent 
proposition,  and  two  dependent  clauses. 

The  independent  proposition  is  The  minutest  plant  or  animal  affords 
a  thousand  wonders,  and  obliges  us  to  admire  and  adore  the  Omnipo- 
tent hand. 

The  first  dependent  clause  is  [it  is]  attentively  examined,  connected 
as  a  condition  by  if  to  the  leading  verbs  affords  and  obliges. 

The  second  dependent  clause  is  by  which  it  was  created,  connected 
also  by  which  to  hand  in  order  to  describe  it. 

In  the  independent  clause — 

The  logical  subject  is  The  minutest  plant  or  animal. 

The  logical  predicate  is  if  attentively  examined,  affords  a  thousand 
wonders,  and  obliges  us  to  admire  and  adore  the  Omnipotent  hand  b^ 
which  it  was  created. 


SYl^TAX  —  MODELS    OF    ANALYSIS.         187 

Tlie  grammatical  subject  implant  and  animal,  compound  ;  its  partg 
are  connected  as  alternates  by  or  (570),  and  botb  modified  by  minutest. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  affords  and  obliges,  compound  ;  its 
parts  are  connected  by  and.  Affords  is  modified  by  its  object  won- 
ders, which  is  limited  by  a  thousand.  Obliges  is  modified  by  its  object 
us,  the  infinitive  to  admire  and  to  adore,  of  which  us  is  also  the  sub- 
ject ;  and  these  infinitives  are  modified  by  their  object  hand,  which  is 
qualified  and  described  by  Omnipotent,  and  the  relative  clause  by 
which  it  was  created.  The  verbs  affords  and  obliges  are  modified  also 
by  the  conditional  clause  if  \it  is'\  attentively  examined.  [Or,  obliges 
is  modified  by  the  objective  clause  "  us  to  admire  and  adore,"  etc.,  of 
which  us  is  the  subject,  and  admire  and  adore  the  Omnipotent  hand, 
etc.,  is  the  logical  predicate.  This  clause  is  itself  complex,  having  the 
dependent  relative  clause,  "  by  which  it  was  created,"  limiting  hand,] 

In  the  first  dependent  clause — 

The  logical  subject  is  it,  referring  to  plant  or  animaC. 

The  logical  predicate  is  is  attentively  examined. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  it. 

Tbe  grammatical  predicate  is  is  examined ;  which  is  modified  by 
the  adverb  of  manner,  attentively. 

In  the  second  dependent  clause — 

The  logical  subject  is  it,  referring  to  plant  or  animal. 

The  logical  predicate  is  was  created  by  which. 

Tlie  grammatical  subject  is  the  same  as  the  logical. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  was  created.  It  is  modified  by  the 
adjunct  by  which,  referring  to  hand,  its  antecedent. 

The  preceding  process  of  analysis,  which  takes  up  so 
much  room  on  paper,  may  be  accomplished  orally  with 
great  rapidity.    Let  this  be  done  in  the  following 

EXEKCISES. 
In  the  same  way,  analyze  the  following  sentences  : — 

Knowledge  is  power. — Truth  is  the  basis  of  honor :  it  is 
the  beginning  of  virtue  :  it  liveth  and  conquereth  for  ever. 
^Time  is  a  gift  bestowed  on  us  by  the  bounty  of  Heaven. 
■ — The  heart  and  the  tongue  are  the  best  and  the  worsi 
parts  of  man. 

Proficiency  in  language  is  a  rare  accomplishment. 


188  Eiq^GLISH     GKAMMAK. 

Praise  is  more  acceptable  to  the  heart  than  profitable  ta 
the  mind. 

He  who  is  first  to  condemn  will  often  be  the  last  to  for- 
give. 

True  religion  gives  order  and  beauty  to  the  world,  and, 
after  life,  a  better  existence. 

A  little  philosophy  carries  us  away  from  truth,  while  a 
greater  brings  us  back  to  it  again. 

What  we  know  is  nothing ;  but  what  we  are  ignorant  of 
is  immense. 

Books  Avhich  save  the  trouble  of  thinking,  and  inven- 
tions which  save  the  labor  ot  working,  are  in  universal 
demand. 

Some  cultivate  philosophy  in  theory  who  are  imperfect 
philosophers  in  practice ;  as  others  advocate  religion,  who 
are  nevertheless  indifferently  religious. 


II.  Constmction  of  Sentences. 

660.  Words  are  arranged  in  sentences  according 
to  certain  rules  called  the  Hules  of  Syntax  {662  and 
666). 

661.  General  Principles. 

1.  In  every  sentence  there  m.ust  be  a  verb  and  its 
subject f  expressed  or  understood. 

2.  Every  article,  adjective,  adjective  pronoun, 
or  participle,  must  have  a  substantive  (109),  expressed 
or  understood. 

3.  Every  subject  has  its  own  verb,  expressed  or  un- 
derstood. 

4.  Every  finite  verb  (that  is,  every  verb  not  in  the  in- 
finitive or  participles)  has  its  own  subject  in  the  nomina- 
tive case,  expressed  or  understood. 


SYNTAX — CONSTRUCTION   OF  SENTENCES.      189 

5.  Every  possessive  case  limits  a  noun  or  substan- 
tive. 

6.  Every  objective  case  is  the  object  of  a  transitive 
verb  in  the  active  voice,  or  of  a  preposition,  or  denotes 
circumstances  of  time,  value,  weight,  ot  measure  (828). 

7.  The  infinitive  mood  depends  upon  a  verb,  adjec-' 
tive,  or  noun. 

8.  Every  adverb  limits  a  verb,  adjective,  or  adverb. 

9.  Conjunctions  unite  words  and  phrases  that  stand 
in  the  same  relation  in  a  sentence. 

The  exceptions  to  these  general  principles  will  appear 
under  the  Eules  of  Syntax. 

T*arts  of  Syntax, 

662.  The  Utiles  of  Syntax  may  all  be  referred 
to  three  heads,  viz.,  Concord  or  agreement,  Govern- 
ment,  and  Position, 

663.  Concord  is  the  agreement  which  one 
word  has  with  another  in  gender,  number,  case,  or 
person. 

664:.  Government  is  the  power  which  one 
word  has  in  determining  the  mood,  tense,  or  case  of 
another  word.  The  word  governed  by  another  word 
is  called  its  regimen. 

665.  Position  means  the  place  which  a  word 
occupies  in  relation  to  other  words  in  a  sentence. 

666.  In  the  English  language,  which  has  but  few  in- 
flections, the  meaning  of  a  sentence  often  depends  much 
on  the  position  of  the  words  of  which,  it  consists. 


190  EI^GLISH    GRAMMAR. 


RULES    OF    SYNTAX.  i 

-J 

Rule  I. — Substantives  denoting  the  sairne  person  or  thing  j 

agree  in  case;  as,  ; 

The  river  Thames. — Cicero  the  orator. — Paul  the  apostle. — I  my-  ' 

self. — I  Paul  have  written  it. — I  Wisdom  dwell  with  Prudence.  . 

Rxn.E  II.— 1.  An  adjective  or  a  participle  qualifies  the  sub-*  \ 
stantive  to  which  it  belongs ;  as,  1 

A  good  boy  ;  a  new  book ;  an  old  hat ;  a  rough  road  ;  a  steep  hill ;  • 
a  lofty  mountain  ;  God  is  good ;  an  amusing  story  ;  a  man  loved  by 
all. 

3.  Adjectives  denoting  one,  qualify  nouns  in  the  singular ; 
adjectives  denoting  more  than  one,  qualify  nouns  in  the  j^lural; 
as, 

One  man  ;  this  book  ;  that  house ;  two  men  ;  these  books  ;  those 
houses ;  the  sixth  day ;  several  weeks ;  many  sorrows ;  this  court 
(676,etc.). 

Rule  III. — 1.  The  article  a  or  an  is  put  before  common  nouns  in  \ 
the  singular  number,  when  used  indefinitely ;  as,  ! 

A  man ;  a  house  ;  a  tree  ;  an  acorn ;  an  hour ;  a  history ;  an  his-  j 
torical  fact ;  a  youth  ;  a  unit  (186-187  and  707). 

2.  The  article  the  is  put  before  common  nouns,  either  singular  ■ 
or  plural f  when  used  definitely  ;  as, 

"  The  sun  shines." — "  The  moon  rises." — "  The  city  of  New  York."  ; 
— "  The  age  of  improvement." — "  Tlie  seven  stars." — "  The  twelve  j 
Caesars." — "  The  most  virtuous  (men)  are  the  most  happy  "  (707,  2). 

Rule  IV. — Personal  pronouns  agree  with  the  words  for  ! 
which  they  stand  in  gender,  number,  and  person  ;  as, 

"  All  that  a  man  hath  he  will  give  for  his  life." — "  A  tree  is  known 
by  its  fruit." — "The  court  has  finished  its  business." — "  The  people  : 
elect  their  rulers  "  (729,  etc.).  1 

Rule  V.— The  relative  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  gen-  j 
der,  number,  and  person;  as,  I 

"The  man  who  speaks."— "  The  book  which  was  lost."— ''The  j 
friends  whom  we  love."—"  Ye  who  love  mercy."—"  I  that  speak  to  i 
you."—"  The  best  tiling  you  can  do  "  (742,  etc.).  ! 


SYNTAX  — K  U  L  E  S.  191 

Rule  VI.— The  subject  of  sl  finite  verb  is  put  in  the  nomina- 
tive; as. 

"  I  am."—"  Thou  speakest."- "  He  reads."—"  We  talk."—"  Time 
flies."—"  Who  did  that  ?"— "  I  know  who  did  it."—"  Do  you  know 
who  is  to  blame  ?"— "  He  is  taller  than  I  (am) ;  than  she  (is)"  (760). 

Rule  VII. — A  substantive  whose  case  depends  on  no  other 
yvoT^'m^ui  in  the  nominative  absolute;  as, 

"  The  ship  having  arrived,  all  is  safe." — "  He  being  alone,  there 
was  no  one  to  disturb  him."—"  Your  fathers,  where  are  they  ?" — "  Or 
I  only  and  Barnabas,  have  not  we  power  to  forbear  working  ?" — "O 
Absalom  !  my  son,  my  son !"— "  Plato,  thou  reasonest  well "  (768, 
etc.). 

Rule  VIII.— A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  number  and 
person ;  as, 

"I  write."-"  Thou  writest."— "  He  reads."— "  We  sell."— "  They 
buy." — "John  and  James  are  brothers." — "  Jane  or  Mary  is  at  home." 
— "  The  army  is  on  its  march." — "  The  people  are  kind." — "  Come 
(ye)  and  see."—"  Go  thou  and  do  likewise."— "  Who  art  thou?"  (776, 
etc.). 

Rule  IX. — The  predicate  rjnibstantive  after  an  attributive 
verb  is  put  in  the  same  case  as  the  subject  before  it ;  as, 

"  I  am  he." — "Ye  are  they  who  justify  yourselves." — "  God  is  love." 
• — "  Who  do  men  say  that  I,  the  Son  of  man,  am  ?" — "  He  is  said  to  be 
a  good  man." — "  They  represent  him  to  be  a  good  man." — "  Saying  is 
not  doing  "  (796,  etc.). 

Rule  X. — A  substantive  being  the  object  of  a  transitive 

verb  in  the  active  voice,  is  put  in  the  objective  case  ;  as, 

"  We  love  him." — "  He  loves  us." — "  Whom  shall  I  send  ?" — "  Send 
me." — "  Honor  thy  father  and  mother." — "  Them  that  honor  me  I  will 
honor." — "Boys  love  to  play." — "  Boys  love  playing." — "I  know 
that  thou  fearest  God." — "  Jesus  I  know,  and  Paul  I  know  ;  but  who 
art  thou  ?"  (801,  etc.). 

Rule  XI. — A  substantive  being  \\ie  object  of  a  preposition 
is  put  in  the  objective  case  ;  as, 

"  Of  him,  and  through  him,  and  to  him,  are  all  things  ;  to  whom 
be  glory  for  ever." — "  To  whom  much  is  given,  of  him  much  sliall  be 
required," — "  Come  with  us,  and  we  will  do  (to)  thee  good." — "  Science^ 
they  do  not  pretend  to." — "  Whom  did  he  speak  to  ?"  (818,  etc.). 


192  ENGLISH    GEAMIIAR. 

Rule  Xll.— Certain  words  and  phrases  should  be  followed 
by  appropriate  prepositions  ;  as, 

"  Confide  in  "—"  dispose  of"—"  adapted  to  "—"  swerve /row  "—etc. 
(834,  etc.). 

Rule  XIII. — A  substantive  that  limits  the  signification  of 
another,  denoting  a  different  person  or  thing,  must  be  put  in 
the  possessive  case  ;  as, 

"  Pompey's  pillar." — "  Virtue's  reward." — "  For  conscience'  sake." 

"  The  Duke  of  Wellington's  funeral." — "  The  secretary  of  state's 
office." — "  Whose  pen  is  this  ?  " — "  It  is  John's  :  it  is  not  mine  "  (341). 
— "  It  came  from  the  stationer's."—"  Sheldon  &  Co.'s  store  "  (839). 

Rule  XIV. — The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  in  dependent 
clauses,  when  both  contingencj/  or  doubt,  and  futuriti/,  are 
expressed;  as, 

"Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him."— "If  he  study,  he 
will  improve."—"  If  he  do  but  touch  the  hills,  they  shall  smoke."— 
"  See  thou  do  it  not "  (857,  etc.). 

Rule  XV.  —  The  infinitive  mood  is  governed  by  verbs, 
nouns,  or  adjectives  ;  as, 

"I  desire  to  learn." — "A  desire  to  learn." — "Anxious  to  learn." — 
**To  do  good  and  to  communicate,  forget  not." — "To  perform  is  bet- 
ter than  to  promise." — "  Fools  who  came  to  scoff,  remained  to  pray." 
— "  Let  us  go." — "  You  need  not  go  "  (865,  etc.). 

Rule  XYI.— Participles  have  the  construction  of  nouns,  ad- 
jectives, and  verbs;  as, 

(Noun). — "  Saying  is  not  doing." — "  In  the  keeping  of  his  com- 
mandments."— "A  forsaking  of  the  truth," — "Avoid  doing  evil." — 
(Adjective). — "  The  sword  hangs  rusting  on  the  wall." — "A  bound 
book." — "  The  lost  sheep."  (Verb). — "  Having  loved  his  own,  he 
loved  them  to  the  end." — "  The  men  stood  speechless,  hearing  a  voice, 
but  seeing  no  man  "  (890,  etc.). 

Rule  XVII. — In  the  use  of  verbs,  and  words  that  in  point  of 
time  relate  to  each  other,  the  order  of  time  must  be  observed ; 
as, 

"  I  have  known  him  many  years." — "  I  expected  he  would  come  " 
(not  "  would  have  come  "). — "  I  expect  he  will  come." — "  It  would 
have  been  easy  to  do  it "  (not  "  to  have  done  it ") — "  I  expected  to  go  ** 
(not  "  to  have  gone  ")  (908,  etc.). 

Rule  XVIII. — Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  othei 
adverbs;  as. 


SYN-TAX — APPOSITION  193 

"  John  speaks  distinctly  ;  he  is  remarkably  diligent,  and  reads  very 
correctly." — "  Julia  sings  well."—"  The  day  is  far  spent." — "  When 
will  you  return  f — "  Soon  "  (922,  etc.). 

Rule  XIX. — Conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases,  or 
sentences;  as, 

"  You  and  he  must  go,  but  I  stay  at  home." — "  Honor  thy  father 
and  thy  mother." — "  He  or  his  brother  is  to  blame." — "  They  can 
neither  read  nor  write." — "  He  is  slow,  but  sure." — "  While  the 
earth  remaineth,  seedtime  and  harvest,  and  cold  and  heat,  and  sum- 
mer and  winter,  and  day  and  night,  shall  not  cease  "  (944,  etc.). 

Rule  XX. — A  preposition  shows  the  relation  between  the  sub- 
sequent of  its  phrase  and  the  word  which  the  phrase  limits;  as,  "  The 
book  lies  on  the  table."  gt^ 

Rule  XXI. — Interjections  have  no  grammatical  connection 
vnih.  the  other  words  in  a  sentence  ;  as, 

"  O  ye  of  little  faith !  "—"Ah  me  !  "— "  O  cruel  thou  !  "— "  Envious  1 
of  David  Garrick  1    Poh !  poh  1    Pshaw !  pshaw  ! "  (970,  etc.). 

General  Rule, — The  icords  employed,  and  the  order  in  which 
they  are  arranged,  should  be  such  as  clearly  and  properly  to  express 
tlie  idea  intended  ;  and  all  the  parts  of  a  sentence  should  correspond, 
and  a  regular  and  dependent  construction  be  preserved  throughout 
(973). 

Ellipsis, 

Rule  I. — An  ellipsis,  or  omission  of  words,  is  admissible,  when 
they  can  be  supplied  by  the  mind  with  such  certainty  and  readiness  as 
not  to  obscure  the  sense ;  as,  "  We  walk  by  faith,  not  by  sight "  (977). 

Rule  3. — An  ellipsis  is  not  allowable  when  it  would  obscure  the 
sentence,  weaken  its  force,  or  be  attended  with  an  impropriety  (979). 


Substantives  in  Apposition. 

667»  EuLE  I. — Substantives  denoting  the  same 
person  or  thing ^  agpee  in  case  (162) ;  as, 

"  Cicero  the  orator." — "  /  Paul  have  written  it." — "  We,  the  people 
of  the  United  States." — "  Te  woods  and  wilds." — "  This  was  said  to  u^ 
men" — " The  river  Thames" — "  Jane  and  Eliza,  Mary's  cousins." — 


194  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

"  The  chief  of  tlie  princes,  he  who  defied  the  enemy,"  etc. — "  That 
was  related  of  Dr.  West,  Mm  who  translated  Pindar." 

008,  The  word  annexed  is  said  to  be  in  apjjosition  with  the 
other,  and  is  added  to  express  some  attribute,  description^  or 
appellation^  belonging  to  it.  The  words  so  related  must  always 
be  in  the  same  member  of  the  sentence — that  is,  both  in  the  subject, 
or  both  in  the  predicate.  A  substantive  predicated  of  another  is 
'not  in  apposition  with  it,  though  denoting  the  same  thing. 

The  substantive  in  apposition  commonly  stands  last ;  sometimes 
Jirst. 

009,  Two  or  more  words  forming  one  complex  tianiCf  or  a 
name  and  a  title  prefixed,  though  really  in  apposition,  are  properly 
inflected  and  parsed  as  one  word  ;  as,  "  George  Washington." — "  Gene- 
ral Washington's  tent."  In  such  examples,  the  sign  of  the  possessive 
is  annexed  only  to  the  last  (848),  and  sometimes  also  when  the  words 
in  apposition  do  not  form  a  complex  name  ;  as,  "  We  arrived  at  our 
friend  Wilson's  plantation." 

For  the  plural  of  proper  names  with  titles  prefixed,  see  161. 

070,  A  noun  is  sometimes  put  in  apposition  with  a  sen- 
tence,  and  a  sentence  sometimes  in  apposition  with  a  noun  ;  as,  "  The 
weather  forbids  walking,  a  prohibition  hurtful  to  us  both."  —  "  The 
promise,  that  he  should  he  the  heir  of  the  world,  was  given  to 
Abraham." — "  Delightful  task,  to  rear  the  tender  thought  /"  (867,  4.) 

071,  K  plural  term  is  sometimes  used  in  apposition  after  two  or 
more  substantives  singular,  to  combine  and  give  them  emphasis;  as, 
"  Time,  labor,  money,  all  were  lost."  Sometimes  the  same  substantive 
is  repeated  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  ;  as,  "  Cisterns,  broken  cisterns." 

072,  Distributive  tvords  are  sometimes  put  in  apposition 
with  a  2^lural  substantive ;  as,  "  They  went  each  of  them  on  his 
way  "  (301). — "  They  all  went,  some  one  way,  and  some  another."  In 
the  construction  of  a  sentence,  the  distributive  word  is  sometimes 
omitted ;  as,  "  They  [interrogative  pronouns]  do  not  relate  [eac/i]  to 
a  preceding  noun." 

07 S,  Of  this  character  are  such  expressions  as  the  following : 
"  They  stood  in  each  other's  way " — thq^  is,  they  stood  each  in  the 
other's  way. — "  They  love  one  another  " — that  is,  t/iey  love,  one  (loves) 
another  (311). 

074,  A  substantive  is  sometimes  connected  with  another  in  a  sort 
of  apposition  by  the  word  as^  meaning  in  <A«  condition  of,  in  the  capo- 


SYNTAX  —  APPOSITIOK.  195 

city  of ;  thus,  "  Cicero  as  an  orator  was  bold — as  a  soldier,  lie  waa 
timid."  But  here — the  reverse  of  the  former  case  (GG9) — the  substan- 
tive in  apposition  with  another  in  the  possessive  case,  or  with  a  pos- 
sessive pronoun,  is  without  the  sign,  while  the  other  has  it ;  as, 
"  Joun's  reputation  as  an  author  was  great — his  fame  as  an  artist 
still  greater." 

.  G7ii»  In  designating  time  and  place,  instead  of  a  noun  in 
apposition,  a  preposition  with  its  case  is  often  used  ;  as,  "  The  month 
of  A  ugust"—"  The  State  of  Ohio."—''  The  dty  of  New  York:' 

Throughout  the  exercises  in  syntax — jirst,  correct  the 
errors  ;  secondly,  analyse  orally  the  sentences  so  cor- 
rected ;  thirdly,  X)arse  all  the  words  etymologically  ; 
and  last,  parse  syntactically  the  word  or  words  to 
which  the  rule  refers. 

The  pupils  should  be  required  to  frame  oral  and  written 
sentences  under  each  rule. 

EXEKCISES. 

In  the  following  sentences,  what  words  are  in  apposition,  and  to 
what  ?    In  what  case  do  they  agree  ?    Give  the  rule  : — 

ReKgion,  the  support  of  adversity,  adorns  prosperity. — ^Byron  the 
poet,  the  only  son  of  Captain  John  Byron,  was  bom  in  1788. — My 
brother  Wilham's  estate  has  been  sold.  —  Coleridge,  a  remarkable 
man,  and  rich,  imaginative  poet,  was  the  friend  of  Wordsworth. 
"  And  on  the  palace  floor,  a  lifeless  corse  she  lay." 

EXEKCISES  TO  BE   COKRECTED. 

[As  the  nominative  and  the  objective  case  in  nouns  are  alike  in 
Enghsh,  there  is  no  liabihty  to  error  under  this  rule,  except  in  the 
case  of  pronoims.] 

Please  give  that  book  to  my  brother  William,  he  who  stands  by 
ihe  window. — The  gentleman  has  arrived,  him  whom  I  mentioned 
before. — Do  you  speak  so  fo  me,  I  who  have  so  often  befriended  you  ? 
— I  speak  of  Virgil,  he  who  wrote  the  -^neid. — I  saw  the  travelers), 
they  whom  we  met  yesterday. 


196  ENGLISH     GBAMMAE. 

An  Adjective  with  a  Substantive. 

G76,  EuLE  II. — 1.  An  adjective  or  a  participle 

qualifies  the  substantive  to  which  it  belongs  (191);  as, 
"  A  good  man" 

2.  Adjectives  denoting  one,  qualify  nouns  in  the  sin- 
gular :  adjectives  denoting  more  tJian  one^  qualify 
nouns  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  This  man." — "  These  men." — 

6*77.  Adjectives  denoting  one  are  the  ordinals, /rs^,  second,  third, 
etc.  (204),  last ;  this,  that ;  one,  each,  every,  either,  neither  ;  much,  and 
its  comparative  more  ;  all,  denoting  quantity,  enough,  whole. 

67 S,  When  any  of  these  is  joined  to  &  plural  noun,  the  whole 
is  regarded  as  one  aggregate  ;  as,  "  The  first  two  weeks  " — "  Every 
ten  miles" — "The  last  four  lines" — "The  last  daps  of  summer," 
etc.    But  the  verb  after  such  subjects  is  usually  plural. 

670.  In  such  expressions  the  cardinal  number,  if  small,  may  pre. 
cede  the  words  first  and  last,  but  not  the  other  cardinals ;  as,  "  The 
two  first  weeks  " — "  The  four  last  lines  "  (704,  3) ;  meaning  the  two 
weeks  at  the  beginning  or  preceding  all  the  rest — the  four  lines  at  the 
end,  or  succeeding  all  tlie  rest. 

680*  Two  or  more  adjectives,  expressing  qualities  that  belong  to 
different  objects  of  the  same  name,  and  that  name  expressed 
only  with  the  last,  should  have  an  article  before  each;  as,  "  The 
red  and  the  white  rose  " — that  is,  two  roses,  the  one  red  and  the  other 
white.  So,  "  The  first  and  the  second  page."  It  has  become  common, 
however,  even  with  good  writers,  to  drop  the  second  article,  and  change 
the  singular  into  the  plural  to  express  the  same  idea ;  thus,  "  The 
first  and  second  pages " — "  The  first  and  second  verses,  etc.  This 
mode  of  expression,  though  incorrect  in  itself,  is  less  stifi"  and  formal 
than  the  other.  (See  Appendix  X.)  When  adjectives  denoting 
one  are  connected  by  the  distributives,  or,  nor,  etc,  the  noun 
must  be  singular. 

681,  Adjectives  denoting  more  than  one,  are  the  following, 
viz. :  all  cardinal  numbers  above  one  ;  as,  two,  three,  etc. ;  few,  many, 
with  its  comparative  more  ;  all,  denoting  number  ;  hoth,  several,  and 
enmjo.    Enow  is  nearly  obsolete. 

682.  Adjectives  without  a  substantive  expressed  are  often 


SYNTAX  —  ADJECTIVES.  197 


I     Twod  as  nouns;  as,  "The  rich  and  the  poor  meet  together"  (201/. 

I  This  is  especially  common  with  all  adjective  pronouns  except  the 
posssessives,  and  the  distributive  every;  as,  "  Of  books,  some  are  good, 
some  are  bad." — "  All  things  come  alike  to  all "  (289). 

083.  Adjectives  are  sometimes  used  indefiinitely  Sifter  bh  in^ 
finitive  ot  participle ,  without  reference  to  any  particular  substan- 
tive, to  express  an  abstract  idea  ;  as,  "  To  be  good  is  to  be  happy  J' — 
"  Being  good  is  better  than  being  great." 

I  084:,  When  an  adjective  is  a  predicate  (621),  it  must  qualify 

'  its  substantive  in  the  subject ;  as,  "God  is  good,  he\^  also  just" — 
"  To  do  good  to  others  is  profitable  to  ourselves." — "  That  men  should 
lie  is  base" 

085.  An  adjective  in  the  predicate  sometimes  qualifies  the  subject, 
not  considered  simply  as  a  substantive,  but  as  a  substantive  affected 
by  the  action  of  the  connecting  verb^  which,  in  that  case  may 
be  regarded  as  a  strengthened  or  modified  copula  (601) ;  as,  "  That 
type  stands  low" — "  This/rw*Y  tastes  hitter." — "  The  wind  blows  cold.'* 
— "  The  door  is  painted  green." — "  John  grows  tall" — " Milk  turns 
sour." — "  Clay  bums  white." — "  Down  feels  soft." 

080.  Adjectives  thus  used  are  sometimes,  though  improperly 
called  adverbial  adjectives.  As  the  adverb  is  sometimes  used  impro- 
perly instead  of  the  adjective  in  such  expressions,  the  distinctioa 
should  be  carefully  marked.    Thus — 

The  adverb  expresses  the  manner  of  the  act. 
The  adjective  expresses  the  condition  or  state  of  the  sub^- 
ject. 

Hence,  when  the  meaning  intended  can  be  expressed  by  the  corre- 
sponding -adjunct  (541),  the  adverb  should  be  used  ;  as,  "  The  stream 
flows  rapidly  "  (in  a  rapid  manner).  Here  the  adverb  rapidly  modifies 
the  verb  fl,ows.  But  when  the  meaning  can  be  expressed  nearly  by 
substituting  the  verb  to  be  or  to  become  as  a  copula,  the  adjective 
should  be  used  ;  as,  "  The  stream  grows  [becomes]  rapid."  This  is 
further  illustrated  by  the  following  examples,  viz. : — 

ADJECTIVE.  ADVERBS. 

John  grows  [becomes]  old.  John  grows  rapidly  [in  a  rapid  manner.] 
Slie  looks  [is]  cold.  She  looks  coldly  [in  a  cold  manner]  on  him. 

He  feels  [is]  warm.  He  feels  warmly  [in  a  warm  manner]  the 

insult. 
The  eagle  flies  [is]  high.    The  eagle  flies  swiftly  [in  a  swift  manner.] 
The  apple  tastes  [is]  sicee^.  Mary  sings  sweetly  [in  a  sweet  manner.] 


1^  ElsTGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

087,  Acljectives  B\\o^A^  not  be  used  as  adverbs;  thus,  wt* 
&r(Me  poor,"  should  be,  "  miserably  poor " — "  sings  elegant"  should 
be,  "  sings  elegantly."  So,  also,  adverbs  should  not  be  used  as  ad^ 
Jectives  (925) ;  thus,  "  He  arrived  safely"  should  be,  "  He  arrived 
safer 

(i88.  This  here,  that  there,  them  books,  are  vulgarisms, 
for  this,  that,  those  books. 

080*  An  adjective  sometimes  qualifies  an  adjective  and 
noun  together  as  one  compound  term  ;  as,  "  A.  venerable  old  man." 
"  The  lest  black  tea." 

090,  Sometimes  an  adjective  modifies  the  meaning  of  an~ 
other  adjective  ;  as,  "  red-hot  iron  " — "  A  hright-red  color." 

091,  Several  adjectives  frequently  qualify  the  same  sub- 
stantive; as,  "A  large,  strong,  black  horse." 

This,  That;  These,  Those. 

092,  When  two  or  more  objects  are  contrasted,  tJiis  refers  to  the 
last  mentioned,  that  to  the  first ;  as.  Virtue  &nd  vice  are  opposite  qual- 
ites  ;  that  enobles  the  mind,  tids  debases  it." 

093,  Former  and  latter  are  used  in  the  same  way  (304).  So 
also,  the  one,  the  other,  referring  to  words  in  the  singular  or 
plural  (307). 

094:,  When  no  contrast  is  expressed,  this  refers  to  a  thing  near 
or  just  mentioned,  and  tliat  to  a  thing  more  remote  or  formerly 
mentioned. 

Construction  of  Comparatives  and  Superlatives* 

095,  When  one  object  is  compared  with  one  other  of  the  same 
doss,  or  with  more  than  one  of  a  di/ferent  class,  individ- 
ually, or  in  the  aggregate,  the  comjiarative  is  used  ;  as,  "  James 
is  the  weaker  of  the  two  " — "  He  is  taller  than  his  father  " — "  He  is 
taller  than  any  of  his  brothers." 

090,  Sometimes,  however,  when  two  objects  of  the  same  class 
are  compared,  the  superlative  is  used,  being  thought  to  be  less  stiff 
and  formal ;  as,  "  James  is  the  loealcest  of  the  two." 

097,  When  one  object  is  compared  with  more  than  one  of 
the  same  class,  the  superlative  is  used,  and  commonly  has  the  pre- 
fixed (713) ;  as,  "  John  is  the  tallest  amongst  us." — "  He  is  the  best 
scholar  in  a  class  of  ten." — "  He  is  tJie  most  diligent  of  them  all." 


SYNTAX  —  ADJECTIVES.  199 

f>9S,  In  the  use  of  the  comparative  and  superlative,  when  more 
than  two  objects  are  compared,  the  following  distinction  should  he 
carefully  observed : — 

699.  When  the  comparative  is  used,  the  latter  term  of  com- 
parison must  always  exclude  the  former ;  "  Eve  was  fairer  than 
any  of  her  daughters." — "  Russia  is  larger  than  any  other  country  in 
Europe."  —  "China  has  a  greater  population  than  any  nation  of 
Europe,"  or  "  than  any  other  nation  on  the  globe."  Thus  used,  the 
comparative  requires  tha?i  after  it  (963,  2). 

700.  When  the  sujyerlntive  is  used,  the  latter  term  of  com- 
parison must  always  include  the  former ;  "  Russia  is  the  largest 
country  in  Europe."  —  "China  has  the  greatest  poxjulation  of  any 
nation  on  the  globe." 

701.  Double  comparatives  and  superlatives  are  improper ;  thus, 
"  James  is  more  taller  than  John  " — omit  more  ;  "  He  is  the  Tnoat 
wisest  of  the  three  ' — omit  most. 

702.  The  double  comparative  lesser,  however,  is  sanctioned  by 
good  authority  ;  as,  "  Lesser  Asia  " — "  Every  lesser  thing." — M.  Y. 
Review. — "  Like  lesser  streams." — Coleridge. 

703.  Adjectives  not  admitting  comparison  (223)  should 
not  be  compared,  nor  connected  with  comparative  words,  such  as  so, 
as,  and  the  like.  Thus,  more  universal,  so  universal,  as  universal, 
should  be  more  general,  so  general,  as  general;  and  so  of  similar 
words.    As  exceptions  see  224. 

JPosition  of  Adjectives, 

704.  An  adjective  is  commonly  placed  before  its 
substantive  ;  as,  "  A  good  man  " — "  A  virtuous  woman." 

1.  Adjectives  should  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  their  sub- 
stantives, and  so  tliat  it  may  be  certain  to  what  noun  they  belong ; 
thus,  "  A  new  pair  of  shoes  " — "  A  fine  field  of  corn  " — "A  good  glass 
of  wine,"  should  be,  "  A  pair  of  new  shoes  " — "  A  field  of  fine  corn  " 
■ — "  A  glass  of  good  wine," — because  the  adjectives  qualify  shoes, 
corn,  irine,  and  not  pair,  field,  glass.  When  ambiguity  can  not  other- 
wise be  avoided,  the  use  of  the  hyphen  may  be  resorted  to  with  advan- 
tage ;  thus,  "  A  good  man's  coat " — "  A  good  man's-coat." 

2.  When  an  adjective  qualifies  two  or  more  substantives,  con- 
nected by  and,  it  is  usually  expressed  before  the  first,  and  understood 
to  the  rest ;  as,  "  A  man  of  great  wisdom  and  moderation." 


»00  EKGLISH     GKAMMAR. 

3.  .It  has  been  disputed  whether  the  numerals,  two,  three,  four,  ettt.| 
should  be  placed  before  the  words  first  and  last,  or  after  them,  when 
used  to  indicate  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  series.  On  this  point, 
with  small  numbers,  usage  is  nearly  equally  divided ;  and,  as  the 
matter  now  stands,  in  some  cases  the  one  form  seems  to  be  preferable, 
and  in  some,  the  other.  In  this  construction,  as  in  some  others  which 
involve  no  impropriety,  euphony  and  taste  seem  to  govern  This 
much  is  certain— neither  form  can  be  justly  condemned  on  the  ground 
of  either  authority  or  propriety.     See  Appendix  XI. 

705.  An  adjective  is  placed  after  its  substantive — 

1.  Generally  when  it  qualifies  a  pronoun  ;  as,  "We  saw  him 

faint  and  weary" 

2.  When  other  words  depend  on  the  adjective;  as,  "A  man 

sick  of  the  palsy  " — "  A  pole  ten  feet  long." 

3.  When  the  quality  results  from  the  action  expressed  a  verb  ; 

as,  "  Extravagance  makes  a  man  poor  " — "  Virtue  makes  a  poor 
man  happy." 

4.  WTien  the  adjective  is  predicated  of  the  substantive;  as, 

"  God  is  good  " — "  We  are  happy  " — "  He  icho  is  good  is  happy  " 
— "  He  looks  feeble" — "  To  play  is  pleasant" — "  ITiat  lie  should 
fail  is  strange." 

706,  In  many  cases  the  adjective  may  stand  either  before  or 
after  its  substantive,  and  sometimes — especially  in  poetry,  and  in 
connection  with  an  infinitive  or  participle — at  a  considerable  distance 
from  it.  In  all  these,  the  variety  is  so  great  that  no  rules  can  provide 
for  them.  Care,  however,  should  be  taken  to  place  the  adjective  where 
its  relation  to  the  substantive  will  be  clear  and  natural,  and  its  mean- 
ing effective. 

EXERCISES  TO  BE   CORRECTED. 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences,  and  give  a  reason  for 
the  change : — 

These  kind  of  books  can  hardly  be  got. — I  have  not  been  from 
home  this  ten  days. — I  ordered  six  ton  of  coal,  and  these  make  the 
third  that  has  been  delivered. — The  garden  wall  is  five  rod  long ;  1, 
measured  it  with  a  ten-foot  pole. — Twenty  heads  of  cattle  passed  along 
the  road. — It  is  said  that  a  fleet  of  six  sails  has  just  entered  the  bay. 
— That  three  pair  of  gloves  cost  twelve  shilling. — (159,  2)  A  man  who 
is  prudent  and  industrious  will,  by  that  means,  increase  his  fortune. — 


SYNTAX— ARTICLES.  201 

Charles  formed  expensive  habits,  and  by  those  means  became  poor. — 
If  you  are  fond  of  those  sort  of  things,  you  may  have  them. — (680) 
There  was  a  blot  on  the  first  or  second  pages. — The  first  and  second 
verse  are  better  than  the  third  and  fourth. 

(G87)  Come  quick  and  do  not  hinder  us. — Time  passes  swift,  though 
it  appears  to  move  slow. — We  got  home  safely  before  the  dark,  and 
found  our  friends  sitting  comfortably  around  the  fire. — The  boat 
glides  smooth  over  the  lake. — (685)  Magnesia  feels  smoothly. — Open 
the  door  widely. — The  door  is  painted  greenly. 

(688)  Hand  me  that  there  pen,  for  this  here  one  is  the  worst  of  alL 
— Them  books  were  sold  for  a  lesser  price  than  they  cost. 
(692)  "  For  beast  and  bird ; 
These  to  their  grassy  couch,  those  to  their  nests,  repair." 
*'  Night's  shadows  hence,  from  thence  the  morning's  shine ; 
That  bright,  this  dark,  this  earthly,  that  di\ine." 

(694)  That  very  subject  which  we  are  now  discussing  is  still  in- 
volved in  mystery. — This  vessel,  of  which  you  spoke  yesterday,  sailed 
in  the  evening. 

(698-700)  That  merchant  is  the  wealthiest  of  all  his  neighbors. — 
Cliina  has  a  greater  population  than  any  nation  on  earth. — That  ship 
is  larger  than  any  of  its  class. — There  is  more  gold  in  California  than 
in  any  part  of  North  America. — The  birds  of  Brazil  are  more  beauti- 
ful than  any  in  South  America. — Philadelphia  is  the  most  regular  of 
any  city  in  Europe. — Israel  loved  Joseph  more  than  all  his  children. 
— Solomon  was  wiser  than  any  of  the  ancient  kinga 

(701,  702)  A  more  worthier  man  you  can  not  find. — The  nightin- 
gale's voice  is  the  most  sweetest  in  the  grove. — A  worser  evil  yet 
awaits  us. — The  rumor  has  not  spread  so  universally  as  we  sup- 
posed.— Draw  that  line  more  perpendicular. — This  figure  is  a  more 
perfect  circle  than  that  is. — He  is  far  from  being  so  perfect  as  ho 
thinks  he  is. 


The  Article  and  its  Noun, 

707.  Rule  III. — 1.  The  article  a  or  an  is  put  lef ore 
common  nouns  in  the  singular  number  when  used  in- 
definitely  (185);  as,  "J  man" — ''An  apple;"  that  is, 
**cmy  man"— "awj/  apple"  (186,  187). 


502  ENGLISH    GRAMMA  E. 

2.  The  article  the  is  put  'before  common  nouns,  either 
singlular  or  plural,  when  used  definitely  (191) ; 
as,  "  The  sun  rises  " — "  The  city  of  New  York." 
[See  Etymology  of  the  Article,  183.] 

708,  A  common  noun,  in  the  singular  number,  without  an  article 
or  limiting  word,  is  usually  taken  in  its  widest  sense  :  as,  "  Man  is 
mortal " — "  Anger  is  a  short  madness." 

709,  The  is  sometimes  used  before  a  singular  noun,  to  particu- 
larize a  species  or  class,  without  specifying  any  iridividiuil 

under  it ;  as,  the  oak,  the  rose,  the  horse,  the  raven,  meaning  not  any 
particular  oak,  rose,  horse,  or  raven,  but  the  class  so  called,  in  a  gen- 
eral sense.  In  such  cases,  whether  the  noun  is  used  to  denote  a  class 
or  an  individual,  can  be  determined  only  by  the  sense,  as  in  the  fdl- 
lowing  examples :  "  The  oak  produces  acorns  " — "  The  oak  was  struck 
by  lightning.-' — "  The  horse  is  a  noble  animal " — "  The  horse  ran 
away." — "  The  lion  shall  eat  straw  like  the  ox  " — "  The  lion  tore  the 
ox  in  pieces." — "  The  night  is  the  time  for  repose  " — "  The  night  was 
dark." 

7 10,  Every  article  belongs  to  a  noun,  expressed  or  understood, 
except  as  in  714  and  715. 

711,  When  several  nouns  are  connected  in  the  same  con- 
struction ^  the  article  is  commonly  expressed  with  the  first,  and 
understood  to  the  rest ;  as,  "  The  men,  women,  and  children,  are  ex. 
pected."  But  when  emphasis,  or  a  different  form  of  the  article  is 
required,  the  article  is  prefixed ;  as,  "  The  men,  the  women,  and  the 
children  are  expected." — "  A  horse  and  an  ass." 

712,  But  when  several  nouns  in  the  same  construction  are  dis- 
junctively connected,  the  article  must  be  repeated ;  as,  "  The  men, 
or  the  women,  or  the  children,  are  expected." 

7 IS,  The  is  commonly  put  before  an  adjective  used  as  a 

noun;  as,  "  The  righteous  is  more  excellent  than  his  neighbor." 
Also  before  adjectives  in  the  superlative  degree^  when  compari- 
son is  implied  (213) ;  as,  "Gold  is  the  most  precious  of  the  metals." 
But  when  comparison  is  not  implied,  the  superlative  is  either  with 
out  an  article,  or  has  a  or  an  preceding  it ;  as,  "  A  most  excellent 
maji." 

.  714:,  Hie  is  sometimes  put  intensively  before  adjectives  and 
adtwrbs  iu  the  comparative  degree ;  as,  "  The  higher  the  mountain, 


SYNTAX  —  ARTICLES.  203 

t?ie  colder  its  top  " — "  The  faster  he  goes,  the  sooner  he  stoics."  Thus 
used,  it  performs  the  function  of  an  adverb. 

715,  An  adjective  placed  after  its  noun  as  an  epithet,  com- 
monly  has  the  article  the  before  it ;  as,  "  Alexander  the  Great " — 
"  Charles  the  Fifth."  This  may  be  considered  as  inverted  for  "  The 
great  Alexander ;"  "  The  fifth  Charles ;"  or,  by  ellipsis,  for  "  Alex- 
ander, the  great  [conqueror],"  "  Charles,  the  fifth  [emperor  of  the 
name]." 

710.  A  or  an  is  sometimes  put  before  the  adjectives  few, 
hundred,  thousand,  followed  by  a  plural  noun;  as,  " A  few 
men  " — "  A  hundred  acres  " — "  A  tlwusand  miles."  In  such  cases  the 
adjective  and  noun  may  be  considered  as  a  compound  term,  express- 
ing one  aggregate,  and  having  the  construction  of  a  collective  noun 
(790).  Or  the  adjective  maybe  regarded  as  a  collective  noun  (204), 
and  the  noun  following  governed  by  of  understood  ;  as,  "  A  few  [of] 
men  " — "  A  hundred  [of]  acres,"  etc.  This  is  evidently  the  construc- 
tion of  larger  numbers  ;  thus,  we  never  say,  "  A  million  dollars,"  but 
"  A  million  of  dollars." 

717 »  When  two  or  more  adjectives  belong  to  the  same  noun, 
the  article  of  the  noun  is  put  with  the  first  adjective,  but  not 
with  the  rest ;  as,  "  A  red  and  white  rose,"  that  is,  one  rose  partly  red 
and  partly  white.    But, 

718,  When  two  or  more  adjectives  belong  each  to  a  different 
object  of  the  same  name,  the  article  of  the  noun  is  put  with  each 
adjective  ;  as,  "A  red  and  a  wliite  rose"="  A  red  rose  and  a  white 
rose,"  that  is,  two  roses,  one  red  and  the  otlier  white. 

710,  The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  demonstrative  that  as  to 
the  article  (717,  718) ;  as,  "  That  great  and  good  jRa.n"=one  man. 

720,  So  also,  when  two  or  more  epithets  follow  a  noun,  if  both 
designate  the  same  person,  the  article  precedes  the  first  only.  If 
they  designate  different  persons,  the  article  must  precede  each  ; 
thus,  "  Johnson,  the  bookseller  and  stationer,"  means  one  man,  who 
is  both  a  bookseller  and  a  stationer :  but,  "  Johnson  the  bookseller, 
and  the  stationer,"  means  two  men,  one  a  bookseller  named  Johnson, 
and  the  other  a  stationer,  not  named. 

721,  When  two  nouns  after  a  word  implying  comparison 
refer  to  the  same  x>erson  or  thing,  the  last  must  want  the  article  ;  as, 
"  He  is  a  better  soldier  than  statesman."  But  when  they  refer  to  dif- 
ferent persons,  the  last  must  have  the  article ;  as,  "  He  is  a  better  soi« 
dier  than  a  statesman  [would  be]." 


204  EKGLISH    GRAM  MAE. 

722.  The  article  a  before  the  adjectives /et*?  and  Ziffle  renders 
the  meaning  positive  ;  as,  "  A  few  men  can  do  that." — "  He  de- 
serves a  little  credit."  But  without  the  article  the  meaning  is  negch- 
tive;  as,  "Few  men  can  do  that." — "He  deserves  little  credit." 

723,  In  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  and  in  some  other  writ- 
ings of  that  time,  the  is  often  used  before  which  ;  as,  "  That  worthy- 
name  by  tlie  which  ye  are  called." — "  The  which  when  I  had  seen." — 
Bunyan. 

724:,  The  article  is  generally  otnitted  before  proper  names,  ab- 
stract nouns,  and  names  of  virtues,  vices,  arts,  sciences,  etc.,  when  not 
restricted,  and  such  other  nouns  as  are  of  themselves  so  manifestly 
definite  as  not  to  require  it ;  as,  "  Christmas  is  in  December." — "  Logic 
and  mathematics  are  important  studies." — "  Truth  is  mighty."  Still 
certain  proper  names,  and  names  used  in  a  certain  way,  have  the 
article  prefixed  ;  as,  "  The  Alps  " — "  The  Bhine  " — "  The  Azores  " — 
"  The  immortal  Washington  " — "  He  was  Johnson,  of  the  family  of  the 
Johnsons  in  England." 

Position  of  the  Article, 

725,  The  article  is  commonly  placed  before  its  noun ;  as,  **  ^ 
man"—"  Tlie  man." 

726,  If  the  noun  is  qualified  by  an  adjective  before  it,  the  article 
precedes  the  adjective  ;  as,  "  A  good  man." 

727,  But  the  article  follows  the  adjectives  oM,  such,  many, 
what,  both  ;  and  all  adjectives  preceded  by  too,  so,  as,  or  how  ;  as,  "  All 
the  men  " — "  Such  a  man  " — "  Many  a  man  " — "  What  a  man  " — 
"  Both  the  men  " — "  Too  great  a  man  " — "  So  great  a  man  " — "  As 
great  a  man  " — "  How  great  a  man." 

728,  When  the  adjective  follows  the  noun,  not  as  an  epithet,  the 
article  remains  before  the  noun,  and  the  adjective  is  without  it ;  as, 
"  A  man  destitute  of  principle  should  not  be  trusted."  For  an  adjec- 
tive as  an  epithet,  see  (715)  above. 

Note. — The  use  of  the  article  is  so  varied,  that  the  best  general 
rule  is  to  study  what  the  sense  requires,  both  as  to  its  proper  use  and 
position. 

EXERCISES  TO   BE   CORRECTED. 

Change,  or  omit,  or  insert  the  article,  where  necessary,  and  give  a 
reason  for  so  doing. 

(707, 1,  2)  A  country  around  New  York  is  beautiful  in  a  spring. — A 


STITTAX  —  ARTICLES.  205 

Kfe  of  the  modem  soldier  is  ill  represented  by  heroic  jBction. — Earth 
existed  first  in  the  state  of  chaos.— An  age  of  chivalry  is  gone. — ^A  crowd 
at  the  door  was  so  great  that  we  could  not  enter. — The  large  number 
of  men  was  present. 

(708)  The  fire,  the  air,  the  earth,  and  the  water,  are  four  elements 
of  the  philosophers. — Reason  was  given  to  a  man  to  control  his  pas- 
sions.—A  man  was  made  to  mourn. — The  gold  is  corrupting. — The 
silver  is  a  precious  metal. 

*  (709)  Horse  is  a  noble  animal. — A  lion  is  generous,  a  cat  is  treach- 
erous, a  dog  is  faithful. — A  horse-leech  cries,  "  Give,  give,"  and  a  grave 
is  never  satisfied. — The  war  has  means  of  destruction  more  dreadful 
than  cannon  or  sword. 

(712)  Neither  the  man  nor  boy  was  to  blame. — A  man  may  be  a  me. 
chanic,  or  farmer,  or  lawyer,  and  be  useful  and  respected ;  but  idler 
or  spendthrift  can  never  be  either. 

(713)  We  should  ever  pay  attention  to  graceful  or  becoming. — 
The  memory  of  just  is  blessed ;  but  the  name  of  wicked  shall  rot. 
— Best  men  are  often  those  who  say  least. — James  is  a  man  of  the  most 
brilliant  talents. — Keep  good  and  throw  bad  away. 

(715)  Herod  Great  was  distinguished  for  his  cruelty  ;  Pliny  younger 
for  gentleness  and  benignity. — Peter  Hermit  proposed  his  plan  for 
recovering  Jerusalem  to  Pope  Martin  II. — The  father  of  William  Cow- 
per,  poet,  was  chaplain  to  George  II. 

(717)  A  red  and  a  white  flag  was  the  only  one  displayed  from  the 
tower. — A  beautiful  stream  flows  between  the  old  and  new  mansion. — 
A  hot  and  cold  spring  were  found  in  the  same  neighborhood. — The 
young  and  old  man  seem  to  be  on  good  terms. — The  first  and  second 
book  are  difficult. — Thomson  the  watchmaker  and  the  jeweler  made 
one  of  the  party. 

(721)  A  man  maybe  a  better  soldier  than  a  logician. — There  \p 
much  truth  in  the  saying  that  fire  is  a  better  servant  than  a  master. 
— He  is  not  so  good  a  poet  as  an  historian. 

(722)  It  is  always  necessary  to  pay  little  attention  to  business. — A 
little  respect  should  be  paid  to  those  who  deserve  none. — Let  the 
damsel  abide  with  us  few  days. — Are  not  my  days  a  few  ? — ^A  few 
men  of  his  age  enjoy  so  good  health. 


206  ENGLISH    GEAMMAR. 

The  Pronoun  and  its  Antecedent. 

729.  EuLE  IV. — Personal  JPronouns  agree  icitli 
the  words  for  which  they  stand,  in  gender^  nuinbeVy 

and  person ;  as,  "All  that  a  7nan  liatli  will  he  give  for 
his  life  " — "  A  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit." 

Si^ecial  Mules. 

730.  Rule  1. —  When  a  pronoun  refers  to  tivo  or  more  ivords 
taken  together,  it  lecomes  plural ;  and  if  they  are  of  different 
'persons,  prefers  the  first  person  to  the  second,  and  the  second  to 
the  third  ;  as,  "  Re  and  she  did  tlieir  duty  " — "  John  and  you,  and  / 
will  do  our  duty." 

Rule  2. —  When  a  pronoun  refers  to  tivo  or  more  words  in  the 
singular,  taken  separately ,  or  to  one  of  them  exclusively,  it 
must  be  singular  ;  as,  "  A  clock  or  a  watcli  moves  merely  as  it  is 
moved." 

Rule  d.—But  if  either  of  the  ivords  referred  to  is  plural,  the 
pronou7i  must  he  plural  also  ;  as,  "  Neither  lie  nor  they  trouble 
themselves."  Distributives  are  always  of  the  third  person  singular 
(301). 

7 SI,  Nouns  are  taken  together  when  connected  by  and — sepa- 
irately  when  connected  by  or  or  nor,  as  above;  also  after  each, 
every,  no,  though  connected  by  and;  as,  "  Each  book  and  each  paper 
is  in  its  place." 

732.  When  singular  nouns  of  different  genders  are  taken  sepa- 
rately, they  can  not  be  represented  by  a  pronoun,  for  want  of  a  sin- 
gular pronoun,  common  gender,  except  by  a  clumsy  repetition  ;  thus, 
"  If  any  man  or  woman  shall  violate  his  or  her  pledge,  he  or  slie  shall 
pay  a  fine."  The  use  of  the  plural  pronoun  in  such  cases,  though 
sometimes  used,  is  improper  ;  as,  "  If  any  man  or  woman  shall  violate 
their  pledge,"  etc. 

733.  Pronouns  referring  to  singular  nouns,  or  other  words  of  the 
common  gender  (126),  taken  in  a  general  sense,  are  commonly  mascu- 
line ;  as,  "  A  parent  should  love  his  cliild."  "  Every  person  has  his 
faults." — "  No  one  should  commend  himself"  The  M-ant  of  a  singular 
personal  pronoun,  common  gender,  is  felt  also  in  this  construction. 

734.  A  pronoun  referring  to  a  collective  noun  in  the  singular, 
expressing  many  as  one  whole,  should  be  in  the  neuter  sifigular  ; 


SYNTAX  —  PROI^OUl^S.  207 

but  when  the  noun  expresses  many  as  individuals,  the  pronoun 
should  be  plural ;  as,  "  The  army  proceeded  on  iU  march." — "  The 
court  were  divided  in  their  opinion." 

755.  A  singular  noun  after  the  phrase,  ^^  many  a,"  may 
take  a  pronoun  in  the  2>luralf  but  never  in  the  same  clause  ;  as — 
"  In  Hawick  twinkled  many  a  light, — 
Behind  him  soon  they  set  in  night." —  W.  Scott. 

736,  The  personal  pronoun  is  sometimes  used  at  the  bo- 
ginning  of  a  sentence,  instead  of  the  word  person  or  persons ; 
as,  "  He  wlio  "— "  They  who  "—also,  "  T/iose  who  "  for  "  The  per- 
sons who." 

7S  7-  Pronouns  representing  nouns  personified  (129),  take  the 
gender  of  the  noun  as  a  person  ;  as,  "  Night,  sable  goddess,  from  her 
ebon  throne."  But  pronouns  representing  nouns  taken  metaphori- 
cally (1046,  3)  agree  with  them  in  their  literal  sense ;  as,  "  Pitt  was  the 
l^illar  which  in  its  strength  upheld  the  state." 

7S8,  It  is  improper  in  the  progress  of  a  sentence  to  denote  the 
same  person  by  pronouns  of  different  numbers  ;  as,  "  I  labored 
long  to  make  thee  happy,  and  now  you  reward  me  by  ingratitude." 
It  should  be  either  "  to  make  you  happy,"  or  "  thou  rewardest "  (245). 

739.  In  the  use  of  pronouns,  when  it  would  be  uncertain  to  which 
of  two  or  more  antecedent  words  (229)  a  pronoun  refers,  the  ambiguity 
may  be  avoided  by  repeating  the  noun,  instead  of  using  the  pronoun, 
or  by  changing  the  form  of  the  sentence  ;  thus,  "  When  we  see  the 
beautiful  variety  of  color  in  the  rainbow,  we  are  led  to  consider  its 
cause" — better  "  the  cause  of  thM  variety." 

Position  of  Pronouns, 

74:0,  The  first  and  second  personal  pronouns  commonly  stand 
instead  of  nouns  implied^  but  not  expressed.  Possessive  pro- 
nouns, and  the  pronouns  of  the  third  person,  are  commonly  placed 
after  their  antecedents  (229) ;  but  sometimes  this  order,  especially  in 
poetry,  is  reversed. 

741,  When  words  of  different  jyersons  come  together,  the 
usual  order  of  arrangement,  in  English,  is  to  place  the  second  person 
before  the  third,  and  the  first  person  last ;  as,  "You  and  he,  and  /are 
sent  for." — "  This  matter  concerns  you,  or  him,  or  me." 

In  connection  with  these  rules  and  observations,  see  also  the  obser- 
vations on  gender  (12&-134),  on  number  (155-160),  and  on  personal 
pronoims  (240-252). 


.J808  EKGLISH    GRAMMA  E. 

EXERCISES  TO   BE   CORRECTED. 

In  eacli  sentence  state  the  antecedent  words  to  which  the  pronouns 
refer ;  change  the  pronouns  which  are  wrong,  and  give  a  reason  for 
the  change : — 

(729)  A  person's  success  in  life  depends  on  their  exertions ;  if  they 
shall  aim  at  nothing,  they  shall  certainly  achieve  nothing. — Extremes 
are  not  in  its  nature  favorable  to  happiness. — A  man's  recollections 
oi  the  past  regulate  their  anticipations  of  the  future. — Let  every  boy 
answer  for  themselves. — Each  of  us  had  more  than  we  wanted. — 
Every  one  of  you  should  attend  to  your  own  business  (801.) 

(730,  1)  Discontent  and  sorrow  manifested  itself  in  his  countenance. 
— Both  cold  and  heat  have  its  extremes. — You  and  your  friend  should 
take  care  of  themselves. — You  and  I  must  be  diligent  in  your  studies. 

(730,  2)  John  or  James  will  favor  us  with  their  company. — One  or 
other  must  relinquish  their  claim. — Neither  wealth  nor  honor  confers 
happiness  on  their  votaries. — (731)  Each  day  and  each  hour  brings 
their  changes. — No  thought,  no  word,  no  action,  however  secret,  can 
escape  in  the  judgment,  whether  they  be  good  or  evil. 

(732)  Let  every  man  and  every  woman  strive  to  do  their  best. — If 
any  boy  or  girl  shall  neglect  her  duty,  they  shall  forfeit  their  place. 

(733)  One  should  not  think  too  highly  of  themselves. — A  teacher 
should  always  consult  the  interest  of  her  pupils. — A  parent's  care  for 
her  children  is  not  always  requited. 

(734)  The  assembly  held  their  meetings  in  the  evening.— The 
court,  in  their  wisdom,  decided  otherwise. — The  regiment  was  greatly 
reduced  in  their  number. — Society  is  not  always  answerable  for  the 
conduct  of  their  members. — The  committee  were  divided  in  its  opin- 
ions.— The  public  are  informed  that  its  interests  are  secured. 

(737)  The  earth  is  my  mother  ;  I  will  recline  on  its  bosom. — That 
Freedom,  in  its  fearless  flight  may  here  announce  its  glorious  reign. 
— Policy  keeps  coining  truth  in  its  mints, — such  truth  as  it  can  tole- 
rate, and  every  die,  except  its  own,  it  breaks  and  casts  away. 

(738)  Though  you  are  great,  yet  consider  thou  art  a  man. — Care  for 
thyself,  if  you  would  have  others  care  for  you. 

(739)  One  man  may  do  a  kindness  to  another,  though  he  is  his 
enemy. — John  gave  his  enemy  a  present  which  he  highly  valued. 

(741)  I  and  my  father  were  invited. — An  invitation  was  sent  to 
me  and  George. — You  and  I  and  James  were  to  be  of  the  party  ;  but 
neither  I  nor  you  nor  he  can  go. 


SYNTAX  —  EELATIVES.  2t/9 


The  Relative  and  its  Antecedent. 

Trt!:2,  KuLE  V. — The  Helative  agrees  with  its  ante- 
cedent in  gender,  number,  and  person  ;  as,  "Thou 
who  speakest," — "  The  book  lohich  was  lost." 
[See  Etymology,  255,  etc.] 

74:3.  The  tiuniher  of  the  relative  can  be  determined  only  from 
the  number  of  the  antecedent. 

744.  JFfio  is  applied  to  persons,  or  tilings  personified  (129) ;  as, 
"  The  man  who." — "  The  fox  wJw  had  never  seen  a  lion." 

743,  IVIiich  is  applied  to  things  and  inferior  animals — some- 
times to  children — to  collective  nouns  in  the  singular,  implying  unity 
— and  also  to  persons,  in  asking  questions. 

746.  In  the  translation  of  the  Bible,  which  is  applied  io  per- 
sons ;  as,  "  Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven." 

747.  Which  applies  to  a  noun  denoting  a  person,  when  the 
character,  or  the  man  merely  as  a  word,  is  referred  to  ;  as,  "  He  ia 
a  good  writer,  which  is  all  he  professes  to  be." — "  That  was  the  work- 
of  Herod,  which  is  but  another  name  for  cruelty." 

748.  Thatf  as  a  relative,  is  used  instead  of  who  or  which — 

1.  After  adjectives  in  the  superlative  degree — after  the  words 

mry,  same,  and  all — often  after  no,  some,  and  any — and  gene- 
rally in  restrictive  clauses  (268). 

2.  When  the  antecedent  includes  both  persons  and  things  ;  as, 

"  The  man  and  the  horse  that  we  saw." 

3.  After  the  interrogative  who,  and  often  after  the  personal 

pronouns  ;  as,  "  Who  that  knew  him  could  think  so  ?" — "I  that 
speak  in  righteousness." 
4  Generally  when  the  propriety  of  who  or  which  is  doubtful ;  as, 

"  The  little  child  that  was  placed  in  the  midst." 
74.9.  The  relatives  who  or  tvhich  and  that  should  not  be 
f nixed  in  a  series  of  relative  clauses  having  the  same  antecedent. 
Thus,  it  ia  improper  to  say,  "  The  man  that  met  us  and  whom  we  saw." 
It  should  be,  "  who  met  us,"  or  "  tliat  we  saw." 

7oO.  The  relative  refers  sometimes  to  the  idea  expressed  by  an 
adjective,  sometimes  to  the  infinitive.  But  this  construction  ia 
rare.    See  examples  (256). 


210  EN'GLISH    GRAMMAR. 

751»  The  relative  in  the  objective  case  is  often  omitted  ;  as, 
"  Here  is  the  book  I  promised  you."  The  relative  in  the  nominative 
case  is  hardly  ever  omitted  except  in  poetry ;  as — 

"  In  this,  'tis  God— directs,  in  that,  'tis  man." 

752,  The  antecedent  is  omitted  before  tvhat  (266),  and  gene- 
l-ally  before  the  compound  relatives  (273).  It  is  sometimes  under- 
stood, especially  in  poetry ;  as — 

"  [He]  who  lives  to  nature,  rarely  can  be  poor." 

753,  What  should  not  be  used  for  the  co^t junction  that. 
Thus,  "  I  can  not  believe  but  wliat  it  is  so,"  should  be,  "  but  t7iat  it  is 
60."  Also,  the  demonstrative  that  should  not  be  used  for  the  relative 
what ;  as,  "  We  speak  that  we  do  know,"  better,  "  what  we  do  know." 

Position  of  the  JRelative, 

754,  The  relative  is  generally  placed  after  its  antecedent. 

755,  To  prevent  ambiguity,  the  relative  should  be  placed  as  near 
its  antecedent  as  possible,  and  so  that  there  can  be  no  uncertainty 
as  to  the  word  to  which  it  refers. 

750,  In  most  instances,  the  sense  will  be  a  sufficient  guide  in  this 
matter  :  thus,  "  They  removed  their  wives  and  children  in  wagons 
covered  with  the  skins  of  animals,  which  formed  their  simple  habita- 
tions." Here  the  sense  only  can  determine  to  which  of  the  three 
words,  wagons,  skins,  or  animals,  the  relative  which  refers.    But — 

757 ,  When  the  antecedent  can  not  be  determined  by  the  sense,  it 
should  be  determined  by  the  position  of  the  relative,  which,  as  a 
general  rule,  should  belong  to  the  nearest  antecedent.    Thus — 

"  We  walked  from  the  house  to  the  ham )     , .  .  ,     , 

« Tur        n    J  *    ^1,    1         fi        xi     T         r  which  had  been  erected." 

"  We  walked  to  the  barn  from  the  house  \ 

Here  the  relative  which,  as  determined  by  its  position,  refers,  in  the 
first  sentence,  to  lam,  and  in  the  second,  to  house. 

758.  So  also,  when  the  antecedents  denote  the  same  object,  the 
one  being  in  the  subject  and  the  other  in  the  predicate,  the  relative 
takes  the  person  of  the  one  next  it ;  as,  "  I  am  the  man  icho  com- 
mands you  " — not  "  command  you."  If  the  relative  refer  to  /,  tho 
words  should  be  arranged,  "/  who  command  you  am  the  man." 
Hence — 

750,  A  relative  clause  which  modifies  the  subject  should  not 
be  placed  in  the  predicate  ;  thus,  "  He  should  not  keep  a  horse  that 


SYNTAX  —  RELATIVES.  211 

can  not  ride,"*  should  be,  "  He  that  can  not  ride  should  not  keep  a 
horse." 

EXERCISES  TO  BE   CORRECTED. 

In  the  following  sentences,  which  are  the  relatives  ?  What  is  the 
antecedent  to  which  each  refers  ?  Correct  those  which  are  wrong, 
and  give  the  rule,  or  the  reason  for  the  change. 

(744)  Those  which  seek  wisdom  will  certainly  find  her. — This  is 
the  friend  which  I  love. — (745)  That  is  the  vice  whom  I  hate. — The 
tiger  is  a  beast  of  prey  who  destroys  without  pity. — The  court  who 
gives  currency  to  such  manners  should  be  exemplary. — The  nations 
who  have  the  best  rulers  are  happy. — Year  friend  is  one  of  the  com- 
mittee who  was  appointed  yesterday. — The  family  with  whom  I  lived 
has  left  the  city. — (747)  His  father  set  him  up  as  a  merchant,  who 
was  what  he  desired  to  be. 

(748)  It  is  the  best  situation  which  can  be  got.— That  man  was  the 
first  who  entered. — This  is  the  same  horse  which  we  saw  yesterday. — 
Solomon  was  the  wisest  king  whom  the  world  ever  saw. — The  lady 
and  the  lapdog,  which  we  saw  at  the  window,  have  disappeared. 

(749)  O  Thou  who  hast  preserved  us,  and  that  wilt  still  preserve 
us ! — The  man  whom  we  met  to-day,  and  that  was  at  our  house  yes- 
terday, is  the  same. 

(752)  I  have  sent  every  thing  what  you  ordered. — All  whosoever 
came  were  made  welcome. — He  whoever  steals  my  purse  steals  trash. 
— (753)  I  can  not  believe  but  what  you  have  been  sick.— It  is  not  im- 
possible but  what  you  are  mistaken. 

(755)  The  king  dismissed  his  minister  without  inquiry,  who  had 
never  before  committed  so  unjust  an  action. 

(759)  He  needs  no  spectacles  that  can  not  see,  nor  boots  that  can 
not  walk. — Those  must  not  expect  the  sympathy  of  the  diligent  who 
Bpend  their  time  in  idleness. 


The  Subject  Nominative. 

760.  EuLE  YL—The  subject  of  a  finite  verl  is  put 
in  the  nominative  ;  as,  "/  am."—"  Thou  art."— "^e  is." 
— "  Thetj  are."—"  Time  flies."—"  The  letter  is  written." 

701,  A  finite  verb  is  a  verb  in  the  indicative,  potential,  sub- 
junctive, or  imperative  mood.    It  is  called  finite,  because  in  these 


^13  El^GLISH     GRAMMAR. 

parts  it  is  Ihnited  by  person  and  number.  In  tlif  infinitive  and 
participles,  it  is  not  so  limited. 

702,  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  (315)  may  be  a  noun,  a  pronoun, 
an  infinitive  mood  (394),  a  participle  used  as  a  noun  (462),  or  a  clause 
of  a  sentence  (637).  All  these,  when  the  subject  of  the  verb,  are  re- 
garded as  substantives  in  the  nominative  (109  and  867). 

703»  Every  nominativef  not  absolute  (769),  or  in  apposition 
(688),  or  in  the  predicate  (796),  is  the  subject  of  a  verb,  expressed 
or  understood. 

704:.  The  following  sentence  is  wrong,  because  the  nominative 
who  has  no  verb  of  which  it  is  the  subject,  viz.  :  "  These  evils 
were  caused  by  Cataline,  wlio,  if  he  had  been  punished,  the  republic 
would  not  have  been  exposed  to  so  great  dangers,"  Better — "  If 
Cataline,  hy  whom  these  evils  were  caused,  had  been  punished,"  etc. 
Hence — 

705.  It  is  impropor  to  use  both  a  noun  and  its  pronoun  as 
the  subject  of  the  same  verb ;  thus,  "  The  Mng  he  is  just,"  should 
be,  "  The  king  is  just."  Except  when  the  compound  pronouns  are 
added  to  the  subject  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  (349);  as,  "The  king 
himselfhsi^  come." 

700,  1.  The  nominative,  especially  in  answer  to  a  question,  and 
after  than  or  as^  often  has  the  verb  understood  ;  as,  "  Who  said  so  ?" 
— "  He  [said  so]." — "  James  is  taller  than  /  [am]  ;  but  not  so  tall  as 
you  [are] ;  but — 

2.  Than  is  followed  by  the  objective  case  of  the  relative; 
as,  "  A  soldier  than  whom  you  never  saw  a  braver." 

Note. — In  comparative  clauses,  the  case  after  than  and  as 
is  determined  by  its  relation  in  the  comparison ;  as. 
He  loved  John  better  than  [he  loved]  me. 
He  loved  John  better  than  /  [loved  him]. 

Position  of  the  Subject, 

707*   The  subject  is  commonly  placed  before  the  verb. 

But  in  imperative  or  interrogative  sentences,  and  in  sentences  inserted 
for  the  sake  of  emphasis  or  euphony,  the  subject  is  often  placed 
after  the  verb  ;  as,  "  Go  thou." — "  Did  he  go  ?" — "  May  you  be 
happy  !»— "  Were  /  he."—"  Neither  did  they."—''  Said  Z"— "  There 
was  a  man,"  etc. 

Under  this  rule  there  is  liability  to  error  only  in  the  use  of  pro- 
nouns, and  in  leavinor  a  nominative  without  its  verb. 


SYKTAX  —  THE    NOMIKATIVE.  213 

EXEECISES  TO   BE   COREECTED. 

Which  nouns  or  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences  are  the  sub- 
ject of  a  verb  ?  If  not  in  the  proper  case,  change  them,  and  give  the 
rule  or  reason  for  the  changes. 

(7G0)  Him  and  me  are  of  the  same  age. — Suppose  you  and  me  go. — 
Tliera  are  excellent. — Whom  do  you  think  has  arrived  ? — Them  that 
seek  wisdom  will  find  it.— You  and  us  enjoy  many  privileges. 

(7G6)  John  is  older  than  me. — You  are  as  tall  as  her. — Who  has  a 
knife  ?  Me. — Who  came  in  ?  Her  and  him. — You  can  write  as  well 
as  me. — That  is  the  boy  whom  we  think  deserves  the  prize. 

(765)  Virtue,  however  it  may  be  neglected  for  a  time,  yet  men  are 
-so  constituted  as  to  respect  genuine  merit. 


The  Nominative  Absolute  or  Independent. 

768.  EuLE  VII. — A  substantive  whose  case  depends 
on  no  other  word  is  put  in  the  noiniuatlve  absolute. 

Note. — The  nominative  under  this  rule  is  usually  called  the  nomi- 
native absolute  or  independent ;  because,  in  English,  though  always 
in  the  form  of  the  nominative,  yet  it  has  no  grammatical  dependence 
on  any  word  in  the  sentence.  This  occurs  in  all  examples  under  the 
following 

Special  Mules. 

769.  Rule  1. — A  substanfive  with  aparticiplef  whose  case 
depends  on  no  other  word,  is  put  in  tlie  nominative ;  as,  "  He  being 
gone,  only  two  remain." 

770.  In  this  construction,  the  siihstantive  is  sometimes  tin- 
derstood  /  as,  "  His  conduct,  viewing  it  even  favorably,  can  not  be 
commended ;"  that  is,  "  we  [a  person]  viewing  it,"  etc. 

771.  Sometimes  being  and  having  been  are  omitted  ;  as, 
"  Her  wheel  [being]  at  rest  " — "  He  destroyed  or  won"  etc.,  that  is, 
"  He  having  been  destroyed  or  won,"  etc. — "  This  said,"  that  is,  "  This 
being  said." 

772.  In  this  construction,  the  substantive  with  the  participle  is 
used  to  express  an  assumed  fact  in  an  abbreviated  foi'tn,  and  is 


214  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

equivalent  to  a  dependent  clause,  connected  by  when,  wJiile,  if,  since^ 
because,  etc.  (644);  as,  "He  having  gone,  his  brother  returned ;"= 
"  Since  or  because  he  went,  his  brother  returned." 

773*  Rule  2. — A  substantive  denoting  a  person  or  thing  ad- 
dressed without  a  verb  or  governing  word,  is  put  in  the  nominative  ; 
as,  "  I  remain,  dear  sir,  yours  truly  " — "  Plato,  thou  reasonest  well." 

774:,  Rule  3. — A  substantive,  unconnected ,  in  mere  exclama- 
tion, is  put  in  the  nominative  ;  as,  "  O,  the  times  !  O,  the  manners  !" 

775,  Rule  4. — A  substantive,  used  by  pleonasm  (1044,  2) 
before  an  affirmation,  is  put  in  the  nominative ;  as,  "  The  boy,  oh ! 
where  was  he  ?" — "  Your  fathers,  where  are  they  ?" — "  The  prophets, 
do  they  live  for  ever?" 

Under  this  rule,  a  mistake  can  be  made  only  in  the  case  of  pro- 
nouns. 

EXERCISES  TO  BE   CORRECTED. 

Point  out  the  noun  or  pronoun  whose  case  depends  on  no  other  word 
— put  it  in  the  case  required  by  the  rule,  and  give  the  special  rule  re- 
quiring it. 

Me  being  absent,  the  business  was  neglected. — He  made  as  wise 
proverbs  as  anybody,  him  only  excepted. — -'All  enjoyed  themselves 
very  much,  us  excepted. — Whom  being  dead,  we  shall  come. 
Whose  gray  top 
Shall  tremble,  him  descending. 
The  bleating  sheep  with  my  complaints  agree  ; 
Them  parched  with  heat,  and  me  inflamed  by  thee. 
Her  quick  relapsing  to  her  former  state. 
Then  all  thy  gifts  and  graces  we  display. 
Thee,  only  thee,  directing  all  our  way. 


The  Verb  and  its  Subject. 


776*  Rule  VIII. — A  verb  agrees  ivith  Us  subject  \ 
in  number  mid  person  ;  as,  "  I  read^^  "Thou  reddest"  "He  J 
reads,"  " We  read"  etc.  i 

[Respecting  the  subject  in  the  nominative,  see  (493).  This  rule,  and  \ 
tli6  special  rules  under  it,  apply  to  an  infinitive  mood  or  clause  of  »    i 


SYNTAX  —  THE    VEEB.  215 

sentence,  when  the  subject  of  a  verb  (762),  as  well  as  to  nouns  and 
pronouns.] 

Remark. — Ijnjyersoiial  verbs  (520)  are  always  in  the  third 
person  singular ;  as,  " It  hails,"  " it  rains"  etc.  Such  expressions  as 
"  it  appears,"  "  it  seems,"  "it  happens"  and  the  like,  sometimes  called 
impersonal  verbs,  are  really  personal,  having  for  their  subject  an  in. 
fiuitive  mood  or  substantive  phrase  following,  to  which  "  it "  preced- 
ing refers  ;  as,  "It  appears  that  the  river  is  rising." — "  It  seems  to  be 
so  "  (see  246,  4).  So  also,  in  the  expressions  as  follows,  as  concerns,  as 
appears,  and  the  like,  the  verb  is  not  impersonal ;  but  whether  sin- 
gular or  plural,  refers  to  a  subject  understood  ;  as,  "  The  case  was  OA 
follows,"  i.  e.,  as  it  here  follows. — "  The  conditions  were  as  follow,"  L  e., 
were  as  thei/  here  follow,  or  as  those  which  foUow. 

Special  Mules, 

777*  Rule  1. — A  singular  noun  used  in  a  plural  sense  has 
a  verb  in  the  2)lural ;  as,  "  Ten  sail  are  in  sight "  (160). 

778.  Rule  2. — Two  or  more  substantives,  singular,  taken 
together,  ham  a  mrb  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  James  and  John  are 
here." 

770,  Substantives  taken  together  are  connected  by  and,  ex- 
pressed or  understood  (955),  as  in  the  example  above. 

780,  A  singular  nominative  and  an  objective,  connected  by  with, 
sometimes  have  a  plural  verb ;  as,  "  The  ship  with  the  crew  were 
lost."  Tills  construction  is  incorrect,  and  should  not  be  imitated.  A 
mere  adjunct  of  a  substantive  does  not  change  its  number  or 
construction.  Either,  then,  the  verb  should  be  singular,  "  The  ship 
with  tlie  crew  was  lost,"  or,  if  the  second  substantive  is  considered  as 
belonging  to  the  subject,  it  should  be  connected  by  and  ;  as,  "  The 
ship  and  the  crew  were  lost."    But — 

781,  When  substantives  connected  by  and  denote  one  person 
ov  thing,  the  verb  is  singular  ;  as,  "  Why  is  dust  and  a^^e* proud?" 
«— "  The  saint,  the  father,  and  the  husband,  prays." — Burns. 

782,  Singular  nouns,  preceded  by  each,  every,  no,  though 
tonnected  by  and,  have  i\\e  verb  in  the  singular;  as,  "Each 
book  and  each  paper  teas  arranged." — "  Every  paper  and  every  book 
was  arranged." — "  No  book  and  no  paper  was  arranged." 

783,  When  a  verb,  having  several  subjects  connected  by  and,  is 


216-  ENGLISH     GEAMMAE. 

placed  after  the  first,  it  agrees  with  that,  and  is  understood  to 

the  rest ;  as, 

"  Forth  in  the  pleasing  spring 
7'hy  beautt/  walks,  thy  tenderness,  and  love." — Thomson. 

7S4,  When  the  substantives  connected  are  of  different  persons, 
the  verb  in  the  plural  prefers  the  first  to  the  second,  and  the 
second  to  the  third.  This  can  be  i)erceived  only  in  the  pronoun 
(730,1). 

785»  Rule  3. — Two  or  more  substantives,  singular,  taJcen 
sejjaratelf/,  or  one  to  the  exclusion  of  the  rest,  have  a  verb  in  the 
singular  ;  as, 

"  James  or  John  attends." — "  Neither  James  nor  John  attends." — 
"  John,  and  not  [but  not]  James,  attends." — •'•  John,  as  well  as  James, 
attends." — "  Not  John,  but  James,  attends." 

786.  Nouns  taken  separately  are  connected  by  or,  nor,  as 
well  as,  and  also,  etc.  A  noim  taken  so  as  to  exclude  others  is 
connected  with  them  by  such  phrases  as  and  not,  but  not,  not, 
etc.  In  such  the  verb  agiees  with  the  subject  affirmed  of,  and  is 
understood  with  the  others. 

Note. — Singular  nouns  connected  by  nor  sometimes  have  a 
plural  verb.  In  that  case  the  verb  denies  equally  of  all,  and  nor 
is  equivalent  to  and,  connecting  the  nouns,  and  a  negative  which  is 
transferred  to,  and  modifies  the  verb  ;  as,  "  Neither  Moses,  nor  Minos, 
nor  Solon,  nor  Lycurgus,  were  eloquent  men" — Acton="  Moses,  and 
Minos,  and  Solon,  and  Lycurgus,  were  not  eloquent  men,"  or,  "  were 
none  of  them  eloquent."  This  construction  has  not  been  generally 
noticed,  but  it  often  occurs  in  the  best  writers. 

787,  But  when  two  or  more  substantives,  taken  separately,  are  of 
different  numbers,  the  verb  agrees  with  the  one  next  it,  and 
the  pliiral  subject  is  usually  placed  next  the  verb  ;  as,  "  Neither  the 
captain  nor  the  sailors  were  saved ;  rarely,  "  Neither  the  sailors  nor 
the  captain  was  saved." 

788.  RinLE4. —  When  substantives,  taken  separately,  are  of  dif- 
ferent persons,  the  verb  agrees  icith  the  one  n^oct  it ;  as,  "  James 
or  I  am  in  the  wrong." — "  Either  you  or  he  is  mistaken." — "  I  or  thou 
art  to  blame." 

789,  Though  sentences  are  often  formed  according  to  this  rule, 
they  are  generally  harsh  and  inelegent. — It  is  generally  better  to  put 
the  verb  with  the  first  substantive,  and  repeat  it  with  the  second ;  or 


SYNTAX  —  THE    VERB.  817 

to  express  the  same  idea  by  arranging  the  sentence  differently ;  as, 
"  James  is  in  the  wrong,  or  I  am,"  or,  "  One  of  us  is  in  the  wrong." 
"  Either  you  are  mistaken  or  he  is." — "  /  am  to  blame,  or  thou  art." 
This  remark  is  sometimes  applicable,  also,  when  the  substantives  are 
of  the  same  person,  but  different  in  number,  and  requiring  each  a 
different  form  of  the  verb  ;  as,  "  Either  the  captain  or  the  sailors  were 
to  blame ;"  otherwise,  "  Either  the  captalu  was  to  blame,  or  the  sailors 
were." 

790*  Rule  5. — 1.  A  collective  noun,  expressing  many  as  one 
whole,  Tuis  a  verb  in  the  singular;  as,  "The  company  was  large." 

791.  2.  But  when  a  collective  noun  expresses  many  as  individ- 
uals, the  verh  must  be  plural ;    as,  "  My  people  do  not  consider.** 

792.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine  whether  a  collective 
Tioun  expresses  unity  or  plurality.     It  is  now  generally  considered 

best  to  use  the  plural ,  where  the  singular  is  not  manifestly  required. 

793.  A  subject  after  "  many  a  "  has  a  verb  in  the  singular;  as, 
**  Full  many  a  flower  is  born,"  etc.  (735). 

794:.  Two  or  more  verbs  connected  in  the  same  construction,  as  a 
compound  predicate  (637)  have  the  same  subject;  as,  "James 
reads  and  writes."    "  James  neither  reads  nor  wHtes." 

793,  But  when  verbs  are  7iot  connected  in  the  same  construc- 
tion, each  verb  should  hav^  its  own  subject.  The  following  sen- 
tence is  wrong  in  this  respect :  "  The  whole  is  produced  as  an  illu- 
sion of  the  first  class,  and  hopes  it  will  be  found  worthy  of  patron- 
age ;"  it  should  be,  either  "  He  produces  the  whole  as  an  illusion," 
etc.,  "  and  h^es"  etc. ;  "  The  whole  is  produced,"  etc.,  "  and  he 
hopes,  etc.,  or,  "  and  it  is  hoped,"  etc. 

For  the  position  of  the  verb  and  its  subject,  see  (767),  and  also 
(741). 

EXEECISES  TO  BE  COREECTED. 

What  is  the  verb  in  each  of  the  following  sentences  ?  What  is  its 
subject  ?  See  if  they  agree.  If  they  do,  give  the  rule  and  show 
how  it  applies.  If  they  do  not,  change  the  verb  so  as  to  agree  with 
its  subject,  and  give  the  rule.  Thus,  loves  should  be  love,  to  agree 
■with  I,  in  the  first  person,  singular.  Bule — "  A  verb  agrees," 
etc.  (776). 

(776)  I  loves  reading. — A  soft  answer  turn  away  vsrath  — We  is  but 
of  yesterday,  and  knows  nothing. — The  days  of  man  is  as  grass. — 


218  Eiq-GLISH     GKAMMAR. 

Thou  sees  how  little  has  been  done. — He  dare  not  act  otherwise. — 
Fifty  pounds  of  wheat  produces  forty  pounds  of  flour. — A  variety 
of  pleasing  objects  charm  the  eye. — So  much  of  ability  and  merit 
are  seldom  found. — A  judicious  arrangement  of  studies  facilitate 
improvement. — Was  you  there  ? — I,  who  are  first,  has  the  best 
claim. — The  derivation  of  these  words  are  imcertain. — To  be  igno- 
rant of  such  things  are  now  inexcusable. — (483). — She  needs  not 
trouble  herself. 

(777)  Forty  head  of  cattle  was  sold  in  one  hour. — The  horse  was 
Bent  forward  to  engage  the  enemy. — The  foot,  in  the  meantime,  was 
preparing  for  an  attack. — Fifty  sail  was  seen  approaching  the  coast. 
?Vo  dozen  is  as  many  as  you  can  take. — One  pair  was  spoiled ;  five 
pair  was  in  good  condition. 

(778)  Patience  and  diligence,  like  faith,  removes  mountains. — Life^ 
and  death  is  in  the  power  of  the  tongue. — Anger  and  impatience  is 
always  unreasonable. — Out  of  the  same  mouth  proceedeth  blessing 
and  cursing. — To  profess  regard,  and  to  act  diflerently,  marks  a  base 
mind. — To  be  good  and  to  seem  good  is  diflerent  things. 

(781)  That  able  scholar  and  critic  have  died. — Your  friend  and  par 
tron  who  were  here  yesterday  have  called  again  to-day. 

(782)  Every  leaf,  and  every  twig,  and  every  drop  of  water,  teem  with 
life. — Every  man  and  every  woman  were,  searched. — No  wife,  no 
mother,  no  child,  soothe  his  cares. — No  oppressor,  no  tyrant,  triumph 
there. 

(785)  Either  the  boy  or  the  girl  were  present. — Neither  precept  nor 
discipline  are  so  forcible  as  example. — Our  happiness  or  misery  de- 
pend much  upon  our  own  conduct. — A  man's  being  rich,  or  his  being 
poor,  do  not  affect  his  character  for  integrity. — To  do  good  or  to  get 
good  are  equally  neglected  by  the  foolish. 

(786)  His  time,  as  well  as  his  money  and  health,  were  lost  in  the 
undertaking. — He,  and  not  we,  are  to  blame. — James,  and  also  his 
brother,  have  embarked  for  the  gold  region. 

(787)  Neither  the.  scholars  nor  the  teacher  was  present. — Whether 
the  subjects  or  the  king  is  responsible,  makes  no  difference. 

(788)  Either  he  or  I  are  willing  to  go. — Neither  thou  nor  he  art  of 
age. — You  or  your  brother  are  blamed. — Neither  James  nor  I  has  had 
a  letter  this  week. 

(790)  Stephen's  party  were  entirely  broken  up. — The  meeting  were 
large  and  respectable. — The  people  often  rejoices  in  that  wliich  will 


SYNTAX  —  PKEDICATE     NOMIKATIVE.       219 

prove  their  ruin. — The  British  Parliament  are  composed  of  lords  and 
commons. — The  noble  army  of  martyrs  praiseth  thee,  O  God ! — A 
great  number  of  women  were  present. — The  public  is  respectfully 
informed. — The  audience  was  much  pleased.— The  council  was  not 
unanimous. — Congress  have  adjourned. 

While  still  the  busy  world  is  treading  o'er 
The  paths  they  trod  five  thousand  years  before. 

(793)  Many  a  one  have  tried  to  be  rich,  but  in  vain. — Many  a  broken 
ship  have  come  to  land. 

(795)  The  letter  from  which  the  extract  was  taken,  and  came  by 
mail,  is  lost. — It  was  proposed  by  the  president  to  fit  out  an  expedi- 
tion, and  has  accomplished  it. — Our  friend  brought  two  loads  to  wSt- 
ket,  and  were  sold  at  a  good  prica 


The  Predicate  Substantive. 

796.  Rule  IX. — T7ie  predicate  substantive^  after 
an  attributive  verb,  is  put  in  the  same  case  as  the 
subject  before  it  (797) ;  as, 

"  It  is  Z"— "  He  shall  be  /called  John.*:—"  She  walks  a  queen."—"  I 
took  it  to  be  7iim." — "  He  seems  to  be  a  scholar" — "  The  opinion  is, 
that  he  mil  live."    Hence — 

Note. — As  the  subject  of  a  verb  can  be  only  in  the  nominative 
(7G0),  or  objective  (872),  the  predicate  substantive  can  be  ouli/  in  the 
noininative  or  objective, 

70  7.  Any  verb  may  be  the  copula  [attributive  verb]  between  the 
subject  and  the  predicate  substantive,  except  a  transitive  verb  in  the 
active  voice.  But  those  most  commonly  used  in  this  way  are  the 
verbs  to  he,  to  become,  to  seem,  to  appear  ;  intransitive  verbs 
of  motion,  position ,  etc.,  and  passive  verbs,  denoting  to  call,  name, 
style,  appoint,  choose,  make,  esteem,  reckon,  etc. 

70S,  The  predicate  substantive  after  a  verb  may  be  any  tiling  that 
can  be  the  subject  of  a  verb  (762), 

700,  The  infinitive  without  a  definite  subject,  or  the  parti- 
ciple of  an  attributive  verb  (304)  in  a  substantive  clause,  has  a. 
predicate  substantive  after  it  in  the  nominative  ;  as. 


230  El^GLISHGRAMMAB. 

"  To  be  a  foreigner  is  a  disadvantage." 

"  He  was  not  known  to  be  a  foreigner." 

"  His  being  a  foreigner  was  not  known," 

••  He  was  suspected  of  being  a  foreigner." 

"  We  did  not  know  his  being  [or,  of  Ms  being]  a  foreigner." 

In  all  these  examples,  the  word  foreigner  is  the  predicate  nomina- 
tive after  to  be,  or  beiiig,  because  these  phrases  being  only  abridged 
dependent  clauses  (649),  the  predicate  noun  remains  in  the  same  case 
after  the  clause  is  abridged  as  it  was  before.  Thus,  "  He  was  not 
kno^yn  to  be  a  foreigner," ="  It  was  not  known  that  he  was  a  for- 
Hif/ner."  As,  then,  in  the  latter  form,  foreigner  is  in  the  nominative 
under  the  rule,  it  remains  the  same  in  the  abridged  form,  and  so  of 
the  other  examples.  But  when  we  say, '  For  him  to  be  a  foreigner," 
or,  "  We  did  not  know  him  to  be  a  foreigner "  (395),  him,  in  both 
examples,  is  the  subject  of  to  be,  and  foreigner  is  in  the  objective, 
according  to  the  rule. 

Position, 

800,  The  usual  position  of  the  predicate  substantive  is  after 
the  verb,  as  that  of  the  subject  is  before  it,  and  this  is  always  the 
order  of  construction.  But  in  both  the  direct  and  the  indirect  ques- 
■  tion,  and  in  inverted  sentences,  its  plaxie  is  often  different ;  thus, 
"  Who  is  he  f" — "  We  know  not  who  he  is." — "  Is  he  a  student  V — 
"  He  is  the  same  that  he  was." — "  The  dog  it  was  that  died." — "  A 
MAN  he  was  to  all  the  country  dear." — "  Feet  was  /to  the  lame." 

EXERCISES  TO   BE   CORRECTED. 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences,  which  is  the  attributive  verb  ? — 
what  is  its  subject  ? — what  the  predicate  substantive  ?  Correct  where 
it  is  wrong,  and  give  the  reason  for  the  correction.  Thus,  me  is  the 
predicate  substantive,  and  should  be  /,  because  the  subject  it  is  in  the 
nominative.    Rale — "  The  predicate,''  etc. 

(796)  It  is  me. — It  was  me  who  wTote  the  letter,  and  him  who  car- 
ried it  to  the  post-office. — I  am  sure  it  could  not  have  been  her. — You 
would  probably  do  the  same  thing  if  you  were  him. — I  understood  it 
to  be  he. — It  may  have  been  him,  but  there  is  no  proof  of  it. — I 
little  thought  it  had  been  him. 

Whom  do  you  think  he  is? — Who  do  you  think  him  to  be? — 
Whom  do  men  eay  that  I  am  ? — He  is  the  man  whom  you  said  it  was. 


SYNTAX— OB  J  EOT  AFTER  VERBS.     \sl 

—Let  him  be  whom  he  maj. — Is  it  not  him  whom  you  thought  it 
was  ? — Thomas  knew  not  whom  it  was  that  called,  though  quite  cer- 
tain it  was  not  her  who  we  saw  yesterday. 


The  Object  after  Transitive  Verbs. 

801,  EuLE  X. — A  substantive^  heing  the  object  of 

a  transitive  verb  m  the  active  voice,  is  put  in  the 
objective  case;  as,  "We  love  hi7nJ" — "He  loves  us." — > 
"  Whom  did  they  send  ?" 

802,  The  infinitive  mood,  a  participle  usea  as  a  noun,  or 
part  of  a  sentence^  may  be  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  as 
well  as  a  noun  or  pronoun ;  as,  "  Boys  love  to  plap." — "  I  know  icTio 
is  there." — "  I  wish  that  they  were  wise." — "  You  see  h/)w  few  have  re- 
turned." 

Special  Rules, 

803,  Rule  1. — An  intratisitive  verb  does  not  govern  an. 

objective  case  (320,  1).    Thus — 

" Repenting  him  of  his  design,"  should  be,  "Repenting  of  his  de- 
sign." Still,  a  few  anomalies  of  this  kind  are  to  be  found  ;  as,  "  They 
laughed  him  to  scorn." — "  The  manliness  to  look  the  subject  in  the 
face." — "  Talked  the  7iight  away." 

804,  Rule  2. — Intransitive  verbs  in  a  transitive  sense 
(375)  govern  the  objective  case  (321, 1,  2) ;  as,  "  He  runs  a  race." — • 
"  They  live  a  holy  life." 

80i>,  To  this  usage  may  be  referred  such  expressions  in  poetry  as 
the  following :  "  The  brooks  ran  nectar." — "  The  trees  wept  gums  and 
balms." — " Her  lips  blush  deeper  sweets"  etc 

80f},  To  this  rule  also  belongs  the  objective  after  causatives 
(375,  3) ;  as  "  He  runs  a  stage." — "  John  walks  his  horse." — "  He  works 
him  hard,"  etc.  Such  expressions,  however,  as  "  Grows  corn"  are 
inelegant,  and  should  be  avoided. 

807'  Rule  3. — Infran.Kitive  verbs  do  not  admit  a  paS" 
slve  voice,  except  when  used  transitively  (375).    Thus — 

"  I  am  purposed  " — ''  I  am  perished."  should  be.  "  I  have  pui^posed* 


223  Ei^GLISH    GEAMMAR. 

— "  I  am  perisliing."  But  we  can  say,  "  My  race  is  run,"  because  run 
is  used  transitively.  Such  expressions  as,  "  I  am  resolved  " — "  He  is 
deceased  " — "  He  is  retired  from  business." — "  We  are  determined  to 
go  on,"  etc.,  tliougli  common,  are  incorrect.  It  is  better  to  say,  "  I 
have  resolved  " — "  He  has  retired,"  etc. 

808.  A  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice,  vrithout  an  object,  either 
lias  an  object  understood,  or  is  used  intransitively  (323). 

809.  Rule  4. — A  transitive  verb  does  not  admit  a  ^>re- 
posltion  after  it ;  thus,  "  I  must  premise  icith  a  few  observations." 
— "  I  will  not  allow  of  it."    Omit  tcith  and  of. 

810.  Rule  5. —  Verbs  signifying  to  name,  choose ,  appoint, 
constitute,  and  the  like,  generally  govern  two  objectives,  viz., 
the  direct,  denoting  the  person  or  thing  acted  upon,  and  the  indi- 
rect, denoting  the  result  of  the  act  expressed  ;  as,  "  They  named  him 
John." — "  The  people  elected  him  president." — "  They  made  it  a 
book." 

811.  In  such  sentences,  when  the  verb  is  in  the  passive  voice, 
the  direct  object  of  the  active  form  is  made  the  subject  of  the 
passive,  and  the  indirect  remains  as  the  predicate  nomiriative 
after  the  verb,  according  to  Rule  IX.  Thus,  "  He  was  named  John." 
— "  He  was  elected  president." — "It  was  made  a  book." 

812.  Besides  the  direct  or  immediate  object  in  the  objective  case, 
some  verbs  have  a  remote  object  between  the  immediate  and  the 
verb,  governed  by  a  preposition  understood ;  as,  "  John  gave  me  a 
book."  But  when  the  remote  object  comes  last,  the  preposition  must 
be  expressed  ;  as,  "  John  gave  a  book  to  me."  The  verbs  thus  used 
are  such  as  signify  to  asJi:,  teach,  offer,  promise,  give,  pay, 
tell,  allow,  deny,  and  some  others. 

813.  These  verbs  properly  take  the  immediate  object  of  the 
active  voice  as  the  subject  in  the  passive,  and  the  remote 
object  remains  in  the  objective  after  the  passive,  governed  by  a 
preposition  expressed  or  understood  ;  as,  "A  book  was  promised  me, 
orto?w^"  (811). 

814:.  In  loose  composition,  however,  the  remote  object  is  some- 
times made  the  subject,  and  the  immediate  object  remains  in  the  ob 
jective  case  after  the  passive  voice;  as,  "/was  promised  abook." 
The  verbs  ask  and  teach  frequently  have  tliis  double  construction  in 
the  passive,  but  in  general  the  regular  construction  is  better. 

Similar  to  this  are  certain  expressions  suflBciently  correct  in  the  ao 


SYNTAX  —  OBJECT    AFTER    VERBS.  223 

tive  form,  but  which  are  anojualous,  and  can  not  be  analyzed  in 
the  form  usually  but  incorrectly  given  to  them  in  the  passive. 
Thus,  Active — "  They  took  possession  of  the  farm."  Passive  (incor- 
rectly) "  The  farm  was  taken  possession  of  by  them  " — (correctly) 
"  Possession  of  the  farm  was  taken  by  them."  This  anomaly  arises 
from  inadvertently  making  the  object  of  the  preposition  {farm),  in- 
stead of  the  object  of  the  verb  in  the  active  voice  (possession),  the 
subject  of  the  verb  in  the  passive.  Such  anomalies  are  the  following  ; 
"  The  circumstance  was  made  use  of  " — "  The  ship  was  lost  sight  of," 
— "  The  occasion  was  taken  advantage  of."  Either  the  regular  pas- 
sive form  of  expression  should  be  used,  or,  if  that  be  awkward,  a  dif- 
ferent form  of  expression  should  be  chosen. 

Position. 

813.  As  the  nominative  and  the  objective  case  of  nouns  are 
alike  in  fornif  the  arrangement  of  the  sentence  should  clearly 
distinguish  the  one  case  from  the  other.  The  nominative  gene- 
rally 2>i^cf'f"d('S  tlie  verb,  and  the  objective  folloivs  it.  Thus, 
"  Brutus  killed  Caesar."  If  one  (or  both)  of  these  should  be  a  pro- 
noun, the  order  may  be  varied  without  obscuring  the  sense,  and  some- 
times the  objective  is  rendered  more  emphatic  by  being  placed  j^?"S^y 
as,  "  Him  he  slew." 

810.  When  the  objective  is  a  relative  or  an  interrogative 
pronoun,  it  precedes  both  the  verb  and  its  subject ;  as,  **  The  man 
whom  we  saw  is  dead." — "  Whom  did  you  send  ?" 

81 7.  The  object  should  not,  unless  unavoidable,  be  separated  from 
its  verb  by  intervening  clauses.  As,  "  We  could  not  discover,  for  want 
of  proper  tests,  the  quality  of  the  metal."  Better,  "  We  could  not, 
for  want  of  proper  tests,  discover  the  quality  of  the  metal." 

EXERCISES  TO   BE   CORRECTED. 

In  the  following  sentences,  correct  the  errors  according  to  the  rule, 
and  give  a  reason  for  the  change.  Parse  the  sentences  corrected. 
Thus,  /should  be  mc,  because  it  is  the  object  of  loioes.  Rule  X. — "  A 
substantive  being  the  object,"  etc. 

(801)  He  loves  I. — He  and  they  we  know,  but  who  art  thou? — She 
that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply. — Ye  only  have  I  known. 
. — They  that  honor  me  I  will  honor. — Who  do  you  think  I  saw  yes- 
terday ? — Who,  having  not  seen,  we  love. — Who  .should  I  meet  the 


JJS4  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

other  day  but  my  old  friend? — Who  dost  thou  take  to  be  such  a 
coward  ? 

(803)  You  will  have  reason  enough  to  repent  you  of  your  foolish 
conduct. — They  did  not  fail  to  enlarge  themselves  on  the  subject.— 
Go,  flee  thee  away  into  the  land  of  Judea. 

(807)  Several  persons  were  entered  into  a  conspiracy. — ^Fifty  men 
are  deserted  from  the  army. — I  am  purposed  that  I  will  not  sin. — He 
has  almost  perished  with  cold. — I  am  resolved  to  go. 

(809)  No  country  will  allow  of  such  a  practice. — False  accusation 
can  not  diminish  from  his  real  merit. — His  servants  ye  are,  to  whom 
ye  obey. — He  ingratiates  with  some  by  traducing  others. — They  shall 
not  want  for  encouragement. 

Change  the  following  into  the  regular  form,  and  give  a  reason  for 
the  change : — 

(813)  I  was  promised  a  pension. — He  was  offered  a  pardon. — She 
would  not  accept  the  situation,  though  she  was  oflered  it. — I  was 
paid  a  dollar  for  my  services. — I  was  given  a  book  of  great  value. 

(817)  Becket  could  not  better  discover,  than  by  attacking  so  jww- 
erful  an  interest,  his  resolution  to  maintain  liis  right, — The  troops 
pursued,  without  waiting  to  rest,  the  enemy  to  their  gates. 


The  Objective  after  Prepositions. 

818*  EuLE  XL — A  substantive,  being  the  object  of 

a  j}'^^POsition,  is  put  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  "  To 
whom  mucli  is  given,  of  him  much  shall  be  required." 

810.  The  object  of  a  preposition  is  sometimes  an  infinitive 
mood — a  participle  used  as  a  noun — part  of  a  sentence — a  phrase,  or 
dependent  clause,  as  well  as  a  noun  or  pronoun ;  as,  "  He  is  about  to 
depart." — "  After  we  came." — "  On  receiving  his  diploma." — "  Much 
depends  on  who  are  his  advi^rs." 

820,  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  considered  inelegant  to  connect 
either  an  active-transitive  verb  and  a  preposition,  or  two  prepositions 
with  the  same  object.  Thus,  "  I  wrote  to  and  warned  him."  Bet- 
ter, "  I  wrote  to  him,  and  warned  him."  So,  "  Of  him,  and  through 
him,  and  to  him,  are  all  things."  Not  of,  and  through^  and  t6 
him"  etc 


SYNTAX — OBJECT  AFTER   PREPOSITION'S.     225 

821,  This  general  rule  is  so  little  regarded,  even  by  the  best 
writers,  that  it  is  a  matter  of  doubt  whether  it  should  any  longer 
retain  a  place  in  our  grammars.  In  many  instances,  at  least,  the 
form  of  speech  condemned  by  the  rule  is  clearly  better  in  respect  of 
perspicuity,  brevity,  and  strength,  than  that  which  it  recommends, 
and  in  such  cases  it  should  be  adopted.  In  some  cases,  again,  as  in 
the  above  example,  the  full  form  is  better  than  the  elliptical.  In  this 
matter,  every  one  must  be  guided  by  his  taste  and  judgment,  avoid- 
ing equally  obscurity  and  harshness. 

822,  When  the  prepositions  f  o,  at,  in,  stand  before  names  of 
places,  the  following  usage  should  be  carefully  observed,  viz. :  — 

1.  To — is  used  after  a  verb  of  motiaii  toward;  as,  "Ho  went 

to  Spain."    But  it  is  omitted  before  home  ;  as,  "  Go  home." 

2.  -4f — is  used  before   names  of  houses,    villages,   toivns, 

and  foreifjn  cities  ;  as,  "  He  resides  at  the  Mansion 
House." — "At  Saratoga  Springs." — "  At  Lisbon." 

8.  In — is  used  before  names  of  countries  and  large  cities  /  as, 
"  He  lives  in  England  "— "  in  London  "— "  in  New  York." 
But  at  is  used  before  the  names  of  places  and  large  cities 
after  the  verbs  touch,  arrive,  land,  and  frequently 
after  the  verb  to  be ;  as,  "  We  touched  at  Liverpool,  and, 
after  a  short  passage,  landed  at  New  Orleans." — "  I  was  at 
New  York." 

4.  In  speaking  of  one's  residence  in  a  city,  at  is  used  before  the 
number,  and  in  before  the  street;  as,  "  He  resides  at 

No. ." — "He  lives  in  State  street." — When  both  are 

mentioned  together,  the  preposition  is  commonly  imder- 

stood  before  the  last ;  as,   "  He  lives  at  No. ,  State 

street,"  or,  "  He  lives  in  State  street.  No. ." 

823,  The  preposition  is  frequently  utiderstood,  as  follows : — 

1.  A  preix)sition  expressed  with  the  first  noun  or  pronoim  of  a 

series,  may  be  understood  as  to  the  rest ;  as,  "  Be  kind  to 
John,  and  Jam£S,  and  Mary." 

2.  When  the  remote  object  of  a  verb,  governed  by  a  preposi- 

tion, is  placed  between  the  verb  and  its  immediate  object, 
the  preposition  is  often  omitted  ;  as,  "  Give  me  your  hand." 
— Bring  me  a  chair." — "  Get  me  a  book  "  (812). 
8.  To— is  commonly  omitted  after  lihe,  near,  nigh  ;  as,  "  Like 
his  father." — "  Near  a  river,"  etc. ;  and  o/ frequently  after 
worthy  and  unworthy. 


226  BIS^GLISH     GRAMMAR. 

824.  Sometimes  tlie  antecedent  term  of  a  preposition,  and 
sometimes  the  subsequent  (539),  is  omitted.  Thus,  the  cmtece- 
dent :  "  \_Isay'\  in  a  word." — "  All  shall  know  me  [reckoning]  from  the 
least  to  the  greatest,"  The  subsequerit :  "  There  is  a  man  I  am 
acquainted  with  " — that  is,  with  whom  I  am  acquainted.  The  sub- 
sequent is  always  omitted  when  it  is  the  indefinite  antecedent 
to  which  a  compound  I'elative  refers  (272) :  as,  "  Give  it  to  who- 
ever will  take  it." 

825.  The  phrases,  in  vain,  in  secret,  at  first,  at  last,  in 
short,  on  high,  and  the  like,  may  either  be  parsed  together  as 
adverbs,  or  the  noun  may  be  supplied,  and  each  word  parsed 
separately  ;  as,  "  In  a  vain  manner." — "  In  a  secret  jp?ace,"  etc. 

826.  Adverbs  representing  adverbial  phrases  ending  with  a 
preposition,  govern  a  noun  following,  in  the  objective ;  as, 
"'  Maugre  hell,"  that  is,  "  in  spite  of  hell." — Milton. 

827.  Though  words  denoting  weight,  measure,  etc.,  are  evi- 
dently governed  by  a  preposition,  yet,  as  it  is  for  the  most  part  under- 
stood, it  is  better  to  dispose  of  such  cases  by  the  following 

Special  Rule. 

828.  Rule. — Muns  denoting  time,  value,  weighty 
or  measure,  are  commonly  put  in  the  objective  case, 
without  a  governing  word  (1C6,  3) ;  as, 

"  He  was  absent  six  months  last  year." — "  It  cost  a  shilling." — It  is 
not  worth  a  cent." — It  weighs  s^ pound." — "The  waU  is  six /eeif  high, 
and  two  feet  thick." 

This  may  be  called  the  objective  of  time,  weight,  value,  etc., 
as  the  case  may  be. 

829.  Nouns  denoting  time  how  long,  are  generally  without  a 
preposition ;  as,  "He  is  ten  years  old."  Also,  nouns  denoting 
time  when,  in  a  general  or  indefinite  way ;  as,  "  He  came  last 
week."  But  nouns  denoting  the  time  when,  definitely,  or  with 
precision,  generally  hsve  the  preposition  expresssed ;  as,  "  He  came 
last  week,  on  Wednesday,  in  the  evening." 

Position  of  the  Preposition. 

830.  Prepositions  should  be  placed  before  the  words  which 
they  govern,  and  as  near  to  them  as  possible ;  but  nei^er  before 
that  as  a  relative. 

831.  Tfliom  ajid  whicJi  are  sometimes  governed  by  a  prepo- 


STltTAX  —  OBJECT    AFTER    PREPOSITIONS.      227 

eition  at  sotne  flistance  after  tliem;  this,  however,  should  be 
avoided  as  much  as  possible.  Thus,  "  That  is  the  man  whom  I 
gave  the  letter  to."  Generally  better  thus — "  to  wliom  I  gave  the 
letter." 

S^2.  The  preposition  with  its  regimen  (539)  should  be 
placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  word  to  which  it  is  related. 

833.  Under  this  rule,  there  is  liability  to  error  only  in  the  use  of 
pronouna  and  with  regard  to  position  (330). 

EXERCISES  TO  BE   CORRECTED. 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  preposition,  and 
the  word  governed  by  it.  Correct  the  errors  and  give  a  reason  for 
the  change.     Parse  the  sentences  when  corrected. 

(818)  To  who  will  you  give  that  pen  ? — That  is  a  small  matter  be- 
tween you  and  I. — He  came  along  with  James  and  I. — He  gave  the 
book  to  some  one,  I  know  not  who. — (831)  Who  does  it  belong  to  ? — 
The  book  which  I  read  that  story  in  is  lost. 

(822)  I  have  been  to  Boston. — They  live  in  Saratoga  Springs. — ^We 
touched  in  Liverpool  on  our  way  for  New  York. — He  has  been  to 
home  for  some  days. — He  lives  at  Hudson  street,  in  No.  42. — We  re- 
mained in  a  village  in  the  vicinity  of  London. 

(823)  Be  so  good  as  lend  to  me  your  grammar. — Get  to  him  a  book 
like  that, — Ask  of  me  that  question  again. — This  has  taught  to  me  a 
lesson  which  I  will  always  be  mindful  of. 

(830)  The  nature  of  the  undertaking  was  such  as  to  render  the  pro- 
gress very  slow  of  the  work. — Beyond  this  period  the  arts  can  not  be 
traced  of  civil  society. 

(832)  The  wrong  ]X)sition  of  the  preposition  and  its  regimen  often 
produces  very  ludicrous  sentences.     The  following  are  specimens  : — 

Wanted,  a  young  man  to  take  care  of  some  horses,  of  a  religious 
turn  of  mind. — The  following  verses  were  written  by  a  young  man 
wlio  has  long  lain  in  the  grave,  for  his  own  amusement. — A  public 
dinner  was  given  to  the  inhabitants,  of  roast  beef  and  plum  pudding. 
— I  saw  that  the  kettle  had  been  scoured,  with  half  an  eye. — He  rode 
to  town,  and  drove  twelve  cows,  on  horseback. — ^The  man  was  digging 
a  well,  with  a  Roman  nose. 


ENGLISH    GEAMMAR. 


834.  EuLE  XIL— Certain  words  and  phrases 

should  be  followed  by  appropriate  prepositions. 

The  following  list  may  be  useful  for  reference  : — 

Ask  of  a  person  ;  far  a  thing ;  af- 
ter what  we  wish  to  hear  of. 
Aspire  to,  after. 
Associate  vyith,  seldom  to. 


Abhorrence  of 

Abound  in,  with. 

Abridge  from. 

Absent /rom. 

Access  to. 

Accommodate  to- 

Accord  with. 

Accuse  of 

Acquaint  icith. 

Acquit  of 

Acquiesce  in. 

Adapted  to. 

Adequate  to. 

Adhere  to. 

Adjudge  to. 

Admonish  of 

Address  to. 

Admission  (accr^sp)  to. 

Admission  (entrance)  »'.nto. 

Advantage  over,  of. 

Affinity  to,  with. 

Affection  for. 

Agree  vyith  a  person  ;  to  a  propo- 
sition from  another  ;  upon  & 
thing  among  themselves. 

Agreeable  to. 

Allude  to. 

Alter  to,  alteration  in. 

Amerce  in. 

Annex  to. 

Analogy  to,  with. 

Antipathy  to,  against. 

Approve  of 

Array  with,  in. 

Arrive  at. 

Ascendant  over,  * 


Assent  to. 

Assure  of. 

Attain  to. 

Averse  to,  from. 

Banish /row,  to. 

Believe  in,  sometimes  on. 

Bereft  of. 

Bestow  upon,  on. 

Betray  to  a  person  ;  into  a  thing. 

Boast  of 

Bind  to,  in. 

Blush  at. 

Border  upon,  on. 

Call  on  a  person  ;  at  a  place. 

Capacity /or. 

Careful  of,  in. 

Catch  at. 

Change  (exchange) /or;  (alter)  to^ 

into. 
Charge  on  a  person ;  with  a  thing. 
Compare  with,  in  respect  of  quaL  - 

ity ;  to,  by  way  of  illustration. 
Comply,  compliance  with. 
Composed  of 
Concede  to. 
Concur  with  a  person  ;  in  a  mea* 

sure  ;  to  an  effect. 
Condescend  to. 
Confer  on,  upon. 
Confide  in. 

Conformable,  conformity  to,  witK 
Congenial  to. 


SYNTAX  —  PKEPOSITIOKS 


229 


Congratulate  upon,  on. 

Consonant  to. 

Consist  (to  be  composed)  Of;  (to 

be  comprised)  in. 
Consistent  with. 
Contrast  vyith. 
Conversant  with  men  ;  in  things  ; 

about   and    among  are    less 

proper. 
Convict  of  a  crime  ;  in  a  penalty. 
Copy  after  a  person  ;from  a  thing. 
Correspond  (to  be  consistent)  with; 

(answering  or  suitable)  to. 
Correspondence  with. 
Cured  of. 
Debar /wTW. 
Defend  (others) /row/  (ourselves) 


y  an  m- 
/<?ran- 


Demand  of. 

Denounce  against  a  person. 

Depend,  dependent  upon,  on. 

Deprive  of 

DeTogaie  from  ;  derogatory  ^o. 

Derogation /row,  of. 

Despair  of. 

Despoil  of. 

Devolve  on. 

Die,  perish  of  a  disease  ;  I 
strument,  or  violence ; 
^'      other. 

Differ,  different /rom. 

Difficulty  in. 

Diminish  ^ow,  diminution  of 

Disabled /row. 

Disagree  vnth  a  person  ;  to  a  pro- 
posal. 

Disagreeable  to. 

Disapjwinted  of  what  we  do  not 
get ;  in  what  does  not  answer 
when  got. 

Disapprove  of. 


Discourage /row;  discouragement 
to. 

Disgusted  at,  vyith. 

Dispose  of;  disposed  (adj.)  to. 

Dispossess  of. 

Disqualify  for. 

Dissent  from. 

Distinct  from. 

Divested  of. 

Divide  between  two  ;  am/mg  mora 

Eager  in,  on,  of,  for,  after. 

Embark  in. 

Employ  in,  on,  about. 

Enamored  with. 

Encroach  upon,  on. 

Endeavor  after  a  thing. 

Engage  in  a  work  ;  for  a  time. 

Enjoin  upon. 

Entrance  into. 

Equal  to,  with. 

Equivalent  to. 

Espouse  to. 

Estimated  at. 

Exception /row,  to. 

Exclude,  exclusion  from. 

Exclusive  of. 

Expelled /row. 

Expert  at  (before  a  noun) ;  in  (be- 
fore an  active  participle). 

Fall  under  disgrace  ;  from  a  tree ; 
into  a  pit ;  to  work  ;  upon  an 
enemy. 

Familiar  to,  with  ;  a  thing  is  fa- 
miliar to  us — we  with  it. 

Fawn  upon,  on. 

Followed  by. 

Fond  of. 

Foreign  to,  sometimes /ro7». 

Founded  upon,  on,  in. 

Free  from. 

Fruitful  in.  - 


230 


ElS^GLISH    GEAMMAK. 


Full  of. 

Glad  of  sometliing  gained  by  our- 
selves ;  at  something  that  be- 
falls another. 

Grateful  to  a  person  ;  for  favors. 

Hanker  after. 

Hinder /ro/w. 

Hold  of ;  as,  "  Take  hold  of  me." 

Impose  upon. 

Incorporate  (active-transitive)  into; 
(intransitive  or  passive)  with. 

Inculcate  on. 

Independent  of. 

Indulge  witli  a  thing  not  habitual ; 
in  a  thing  habitual. 

Indulgent  to. 

Influence  on,  over,  with. 

Inform  of,  about,  concerning. 

Initiate  into  a  place  ;  in  an  art. 

Inquire. — (see  ask) 

Inroad  into. 

Inseparable  from. 

Insinuate  into. 

Insist  upon. 

Instruct  in. 

Inspection  (prying)  into ;  (super- 
intendence) over. 

Intent  upon,  on. 

Interfere  with. 

Intervene  between. 

Introduce  into  a  place ;  to  a  person. 

Intrude  into  a  place  enclosed  ; 
upon  a  person,  or  a  thing  not 
enclosed. 

Inured  to. 

Invested  u>ithf  in. 

Lame  of 

Level  unth. 

Long  for,  after. 

Look  on  what  is  present ;  for  what 
is  absent ;  after  what  is  distant. 


Made  of. 

Made  much  of. 

Marry  to. 

Martyr /or. 

Militate  against. 

Mistrustful  of. 

Need  of 

Obedient  to. 

Object  to,  against. 

Observance,  observation  of. 

Obtrude  upon,  on. 

Occasion  for. 

Offensive  to. 

Operate  upon,  on. 

Opposite,  opposition  to. 

Partake  of ;  participate  of,  in. 

Penetrate  into. 

Persevere  in. 

Pitch  upon. 

Poor  in. 

Prefer  to,  over,  above. 

Preference  to,  over. 

Preferable  to. 

Prefix  to. 

Prejudice  againfit. 

Preside  over. 

Prevent  from. 

Prevail  (to  persuade)  with,on,upon; 

(to  overcome)  over,  against. 
Prey  on,  upon. 
Productive  of. 
Profit  by. 
Protect  others  from ;   ourselves 

against. 
Pronounce  against  a  person ;  on  a 

thing. 
Provide  with,  for. 
Proud  of. 
Purge  of,  away. 
Quarrel  with. 
Reckon  on,  upon. 


SYNTAX — PREPOSITIONS. 


231 


Reconcile  (to  friendship)  to;  (to 
make  consistent)  with. 

Reduce  (subdue)  under  ;  (in  other 
cases)  to. 

Reflect  upon,  on. 

Regard /(9r;  in  regard  to. 

Rely  upon,  on. 

Replete  vyith. 

Reproached  for. 

Resemblance  to. 

Resolve  on. 

Respect  to;  in  respect  to,  of. 

Restore  to. 

Rich  in. 

Rob  of 

Rule  over. 

Share  in,  of 

Sick  of 

Significant  of. 

Similar  to. 

Sink  into,  beneath. 

Skillful  (before  a  noun)  in;  (be- 
fore a  participle)  at,  in. 

Strain  out. 


Strip  of 

Submit  to. 

Sent  to. 

Swerve  from. 

Taste  of,  means  actual  enjoyment; 
taste  for,  means  capacity  oi 
genius  for. 

Tax  mth  (for  example,  a  crime,  an 
act) ;  for  (a  purpose,  a  state). 

Thankful /or. 

Think  of,  on. 

Touch  at. 

Unite  (transitive)  to;  (intransitive) 
loith. 

Unison  with,  to. 

Useful  for. 

Value  upon,  on. 

Vest,  before  the  possessor,  in;  be- 
fore the  possessed,  u)ith. 

Wait  upon,  on. 

Witness  of, 

Worthy,  unworthy  of  But  after 
these,  ofia  generally  omitted. 


835,  What  preposition  it  is  proper  to  use,  often  depends  as 
much  upon  tvhat  follows,  as  upon  what  goes  before.  Thus, 
"  To  fall  from  a  height " — "  into  a  pit " — "  in  battle  " — "  to  work  " — 
**  upon  an  enemy" 

836.  Into  is  used  only  after  verbs  of  motion ,  and  implies 
entrance.  In  is  used  after  verbs  of  motion  or  rest,  and  denotes 
situation,  but  never  entrance ;  as,  "  He  went  into  a  carriage,  and  rode 
in  it." 

837*  Boast f  approve,  and  disapprove,  are  often  used 
without  a  proposition  following  ;  so  also  worthy  and  uiu 
worthy. 

838.  The  same  preposition  that  follows  a  verb  or  adjec- 
tive,  usually  follows  the  noun  derwed  from  it,  and  viM 

versa  ;  as,  "  Confide  in  " — "  Ck)nfident  in  " — "  Confidence  in." 


233  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES  TO   BE   CORRECTED. 

In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  prepositions  and  the  ante- 
cedent  term.    If  not  appropriate,  correct,  and  give  the  rule. 

This  remark  is  founded  with  truth. — He  was  eager  of  recommend- 
ing him  to  his  fellow-citizens. — I  find  great  difficulty  of  writing. — 
Every  change  is  not  a  change  to  the  better. — Changed  for  a  worse 
shape  it  can  not  he. — It  is  important,  in  times  of  trial,  to  have  a  friend 
to  whom  you  can  confide. — You  may  rely  in  the  truth  of  wliat  he 
says. — Many  have  profited  from  good  advice,  but  have  not  always 
been  grateful  of  it. — I  have  no  occasion  of  his  services. — Favors  are 
not  always  bestowed  to  the  most  deserving. — This  is  very  difierent  to 
that. — Virtue  and  vice  differ  widely  with  each  other. — Come  in  the 
house. — We  rode  into  a  carriage  with  four  horses. — The  boy  fell  under 
a  deep  pit. — Such  conduct  can  not  be  reconciled  to  your  profession. — 
Go,  and  be  reconciled  with  thy  brother. — A  man  had  four  sons,  and 
he  divided  his  property  between  them. — I  am  now  engaged  with  that 
work. — He  insists  on  it  that  he  is  right. 


The  Possessive  Limiting  Substantives. 

830.  Rule  XIII.— J  substantive  that  limits  the 
signification  of  another,  denoting  a  different  person  or 
thing,  must  he  put  in  the  ^Jossessive  case  ;  as,  "  Virtue's  re- 
ward.''— "John's  hooks." 

84=0.  The  substantive  in  the  possessive  case  limits  the  significa- 
tion of  the  other,  by  representing  the  tiling  named  as  proceedhig 
fronif  possessed  hy,  or  suitable  to  the  person  or  thing  ex- 
pressed by  the  possessive  (165).  It  is  of  course  necessary,  under  this 
rule,  that  the  substantives  signify  different  things, 

841,  A  substantive,  limited  by  the  possessive,  may  be  any 
noun  in  any  case,  or  a  verbal  noun  (462),  either  alone  or  with 
its  regimen,  or  modifying  words ;  as,  "  On  eagle's  wings.'' — "  He  was 
opposed  to  John's  writing." — "  I  am  in  favor  of  a  pupil's  composing 
frequently  "  (896). — "  John's  ImvAng  devoted  himself  too  much  to  study 
was  the  cause  of  his  sickness"  (463). 

842*  The  noun  limited  by  the  possessive  is  often  under- 


SYNTAX  —  POSSESSIVE.  2)3 

stood  ;  as,  "  This  book  is  John's  [book]."  It  is  always  omitted  after 
the  possessive  case  of  the  personal  pvonouns ;  as,  "This  book 
is  inim,  thiiie,  ours"  etc. ;  and,  in  this  construction,  when  supplied, 
the  possessive  case  must  be  changed  for  the  possessive  pronoun 
(241) ;  as,  "  This  is  my  book,  thy  book,  aur  book ;"  not  mine  book, 
etc.  (293).  Appendix  VI. 

S-13,  The  possessive  case,  and  the  preposition  of,  tvith  the 
objective f  are  often  equivalent ;  as,  "  My/a^A^r'*  house  "="  The 
houseof  my  father."    But — 

844,  Sometimes  the  idea  expressed  by  o/,  tvith  the  object^ 
ire,  can  not  be  expressed  at  all  by  the  possessive ;  as,  "  A  ring 
of  gold." — "A  cup  of  water." — "A  piece  of  land." — "The  house  of 
refuge"  etc.  Sometimes,  again,  the  ideas  expressed  are  different ; 
thus,  "  The  Lord's  day,"  means  the  sabbath  ;  "  The  day  of  the  Lord'* 
means  the  day  of  judgment.  "  M.j  father's  picture,"  means  a  picture 
belonging  to  my  father ;  "  A  picture  of  my  father,"  means  a  portrait 
of  him.  "  God's  love,"  means  only  the  love  which  God  feels,  "  The 
love  of  God,"  means  either  the  love  which  God  feels  to  us,  or  that 
which  we  feel  to  him. 

845.  Of,  before  a  possessive  case,  followed  by  the  substantive 
which  it  limits,  usually  governs  that  substantive  ;  as,  "  The  heat  of 
the  Sim's  rays."  But  of  before  a  x>ossessive,  not  folloived  by 
the  substantive  which  it  limits,  governs  that  substantive  understood, 
and  the  expression  refers  to  a  part  of  the  things  possessed ;  as,  "  A 
discovery  of  [that  is,  from]  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  [discoveries]  ;"  mean- 
ing, "  One  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  discoveries  "  (242). 

84G,  Even  when  the  possessive  case,  and  of  with  the  objective, 
are  equivalent  in  meaning,  the  arranfjenient  and  euphony ,  as 
well  as  the  perspicuity  of  the  sentence,  will  often  render  the  one  ex- 
pression preferable  to  the  other.  When  this  is  the  case,  care  should 
be  taken  to  use  that  form  which,  in  the  circumstances,  is  best.  Thus, 
"  In  the  name  of  the  army."  is  better  than,  "  In  the  army's  name  ;'* 
"  My  mother's  gold  ring,"  is  better  than,  "  The  gold  ring  of  my 
mother."  A  succession  of  words  in  either  form  is  harsh,  and  may  be 
avoided  by  a  proper  mixture  of  the  two ;  thus,  "  My  brother's  wife's 
sister  —better,  "The  sister  of  my  brother's  wife." — "The  sickness 
of  the  son  of  the  king  " — better,  "  The  sickness  of  the  king's  son." 

84  7 ,  When  several  nouns  come  together  in  the  possessive  cage, 
implying  coniino'n  possession,  \hQ^\gxioi\h&  possessive  \9,nn~ 
nexed  to  the  lastj  and  understood  to  the  rest  y  as,  "  Jan© 


^34  ENGLISH    GKAMMAR. 

and  Lucy's  book,  [that  is,  a  Hook  the  common  property  of  Jane  ana 
Lucy,]  was  sent  after  a  day  or  two's  delay."  But  if  common  posses- 
sion is  not  implied,  or  if  several  words  intervene,  the  sign  of  the  pos- 
sessive should  be  annexed  to  each ;  as,  "  Jane's  and  Lucy's  books," 
that  is,  books,  some  of  which  are  Jane's,  and  others  Lucy's.  "  This 
gained  the  king's,  as  well  as  the  people's,  approbation." 

848,  When  a  name  is  complete,  consisting  of  more  terms  than 
one,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  annexed  to  the  last  only ;  as,  "  Julius 
Caesar's  Commentaries." — "  John  the  Baptist's  head." — "  His  brother 
Philip's  wife." — "  The  Bishop  of  London's  charge."  Here  Julius 
Ccesafs  is  a  complex  name,  in  the  possessive  ;  John  and  brother  are 
in  the  possessive,  without  the  sign,  that  being  annexed  to  the  words 
Baptid  and  Philip,  in  apposition.  In  the  last  example,  "  London  "  is 
in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  of,  and  the  ^s  annexed  properly 
belongs  to  Bishop,  which  limits  the  word  charge.  In  parsing  the 
words  separately,  the  transfer  must,  of  course,  be  so  made.  But  the 
true  reason  for  annexing  's  to  London  is,  that  the  whole  phrase, 
*'  Bishop  of  London,"  is  regarded  as  one  term,  in  the  possessive,  limit- 
ing the  word  charge,  and  may  be  so  parsed.  Thus,  "  A  complex  noun 
in  the  possessive  case,  limiting  the  word  charge" 

84!),  When  a  short  eocplatiatory  term  is  joined  to  a  name, 
the  sign  of  the  possessive  may  be  annexed  to  either  ;  as,  "  I  called  at 
Smith's  the  bookseller,"  or,  "  at  Smith  the  bookseller's."  But  if,  to 
such  a  phrase,  the  substantive  which  it  limits  is  added,  the  sign  of 
the  possessive  must  be  annexed  to  the  last ;  as,  "  I  called  at  Smith 
the  bookseller's  shop." 

850,  If  the  explanatory  circumstance  be  complex ^  or  consist  of 
more  terms  than  one^  the  sign  of  the  possessive  must  be  annexed 
to  the  name  or  first  substantive  ;  as,  "  This  psalm  is  David's,  the 
king,  priest,  and  prophet  of  the  people." — "  That  book  is  Smith's,  the 
bookseller  in  Maiden  Lane." 

851,  This  mode  of  expression,  however,  is  never  elegant,  and 
though  sometimes  used  when  the  governing  substantive  is  under, 
stood,  yet  it  would  be  better  to  avoid  it,  and  say,  "  This  is  a  psalm  of 
David,  the  king,"  etc.,  or  "  This  is  one  of  the  psalms  of  David,"  etc. 
But  an  expression  like  this  can  not,  with  any  propriety,  be  used  when 
the  substantive  limited  by  the  possessive  is  added.  Thus,  "  David, 
the  king,  priest,  and  prophet  of  the  people's  psalm,"  would  be  intol- 
erable. 

852,  When  two  nouns  in  the  possessive  are  used  to  liinit 


8Y-N"TAX  —  POSSESSIVE.  235 

different  tvordSf  the  sign  of  the  possessive  must  be  annexed 
to  each  ;  as,  "  He  took  refu^  at  the  governor's,  the  king's  repre- 
sentative," that  is,  "  at  the  governor's  house."  ^^ 

8ij3,  The  s  after  the  apostrophe  is  sometimes  omitted,  when 
the  first  word  ends  and  the  following  word  begins  with  an  s,  or 
when  the  use  of  it  would  occasion  a  disagreeable  repetition  oi 
^-sounds  ;  as,  "  For  righteousness'  sake." — "  For  conscience'  sake." — 
"For  Jesus'  sake." — "At  Jesus'  feet"  (173).  In  other  cases  such 
omissions  would  generally  be  improper ;  as,  "  James'  book." — "  Miss' 
shoes,"  instead  of,  "  James's  book." — "  Miss's  shoes." 

SJ4,  A  clause  of  a  sentence  should  never  come  between  the 
possessive  case  and  the  word  which  it  limits ;  thus,  "  She  began  to 
extol  the  farmer's,  as  Bhe  called  him,  excellent  understanding,"  should 
be  "  the  excellent  understanding  of  the  farmer,  as  she  called  him." 

Sijo,  A  noun  limited  by  the  possessive  plural,  or  by  two  or 
more  noims  severally  in  the  possessive  singular,  should  not  be  plural 
imless  the  sense  require  it.  Thus,  "  The  men's  health  [not  healths] 
suffered  from  the  climate." — "  John's  and  William's  wife  [not  wives] 
are  of  the  same  age." 

84>6,  The  possessive  tvJiosesoever  is  sometimes  divided  by  in- 
terposing the  word  which  it  limits :  as,  "  whose  house  soever."  This,  in 
general,  however,  is  to  be  avoided,  and  to  be  admitted  only  when 
euphony  and  precision  are  thereby  promoted  (277). 

EXERCISES  TO   BE   CORRECTED. 

In  the  following  sentences,  show  which  is  the  limiting  substantive, 
and  which  is  the  one  limited — where  wrong,  correct  according  to  the 
rule  or  observations. 

(839)  Virtues  reward. — One  mans  loss  is  often  another  mans  gain. 
Mans  chief  end  is  to  glorify  God. — My  ancestors  virtue  is  not  mine. 
— A  mothers  tenderness  and  a  fathers  care  are  natures  gifts  for  mans 
advantage. — For  Christ  sake. — For  ten  sake. — Which  dictionary  do 
you  prefer— Webster,  Walker,  or  Johnson? — (172)  Asa  his  heart 
was  perfect. — John  Thompson  his  book. — Lucy  Jones  her  book. 

(841)  He  was  averse  to  the  nation  involving  itself  in  war.— Much 
depends  on  your  pupil  composing  frequently. — He  being  rich  did  not 
make  him  hapi^y. — I  am  opposed  to  him  going  on  such  an  expedition. 

(842)  That  book  is  James  book,  and  that  one  is  Roberts. — That 
knife  is  your  knife,  but  I  thought  it  was  my  knife. — ^My  book  is  old, 
but  your  book  and  Roberts  book  are  new. 


236  EI^GLISH     GEAMMAR. 

(845)  That  landscape  is  a  picture  of  my  fatlier, — Tlie  work  you 
speak  of  is  one  of  Irving. — Gravitation  was  a  discovery  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton. — That  is  a  ring  of  my  mother. 

(846)  Tlie  world's  government  is  not  left  to  chance. — The  tree  is 
known  by  the  fruit  of  it. — The  commons'  vote  was  against  the  measure : 
the  lords'  was  in  its  favor. — The  weekly  return  of  the  day  of  the 
Lord  is  a  blessing  to  man. — The  representatives  house  is  now  in 
session. — John's  brother's  wife's  mother  is  sick. — The  severity  of  the 
sickness  of  the  son  of  the  king  caused  great  alarm. 

(847)  William's  and  Mary's  reign. — Cain  and  Abel's  sacrifice  were 
not  the  same. — David  and  Solomon's  reign  were  prosperous, — ^.lohn  and 
William's  wife  were  cousins. — Men,  women,  and  children's  shoes  for 
sale. — He  cared  for  liis  father,  and  also  for  his  mother's  interest. 

(848)  Messrs.  Sheldon's  «&  Co.'s  bookstore  is  in  New  York. — Smith's 
and  McDougal's  printing-office  is  in  Beekman  street. — Jack's  the 
Giant-killer's  wonderful  exploits. — The  bishop's  of  London's  charge 
to  his  clergy.  The  Grand  Sultan's  Mahomet's  palace. — The  secre- 
tary's of  war  report. 

(850  and  851)  Call  at  Smith,  the  bookseller  and  stationer's. — The 
parcel  was  left  at  Johnson,  a  merchant  in  Broadway's.  He  emulated 
Caesar,  the  greatest  general  of  antiquity's  bravery.  General  Grant,  an 
excellent  man  and  brave  soldier's  residence. 

(853)  That  house  is  Smith,  the  poor  man's  friend. — ^We  spent  an 
agreeable  hour  at  Wilson,  the  governor's  deputy. — The  coach  stopped 
at  Mr.  Brown,  Henry's  father. 

(853)  James  father  arrived  yesterday. — Charles  books  are  com- 
pletely spoiled. — King  James  translators  merely  revised  former 
translations. — For  conscience's  sake. 

(854)  They  condemned  the  judge's  in  the  case  of  Bardwell  decision. 
— The  prisoner's,  if  I  may  say  so,  conduct  was  shameful. — Peter  the 
Hermit's,  as  he  was  called,  opinion. 

(855)  All  men  have  talents  committed  to  their  charges. — It  ip  the 
duty  of  Christians  to  submit  to  their  lots. — We  protest  against  this 
course,  in  our  names  and  in  the  names  of  our  constituents. — A  father's 
and  mother's  loves  to  their  children  are  very  tender. 


SYI^TAX  —  SUBJUNCTIVE.  237 

The  Subjiiiictive  Mood. 

857.  Rule  XIV. — The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  in 
dependent  clauses,  ichen  both  conthiffeney  or  doubt, 

and  futurity,  are  eo:prcssed ;  as,  "If  he  continue  to 
study  he  will  improve.^'  ' 

Si>8,  Wlien  contingency  or  doubt  only  and  not  futurity,  is  im- 
plied, tlio  indicative  is  used ;  as,  "  If  lie  has  money  lie  keeps  it." 

Siji),  Contingency  or  doubt  is  usually  expressed  by  the  connec- 
tives //,  tJioiHjh,  unless,  except,  whether,  etc. ;  but  whether, 
futurity  is  im])lied  or  not,  must  be  gathered  from  the  context.  In 
general,  when  the  sense  is  the  same,  with  shall,  ivill,  or  should 
prefixed  to  the  verb,  as  without  it,  the  subjunctive  may  be  used  ; 
otherwise,  not.  Thus,  in  the  preceding  example,  "  If  he  continue," 
and  "  Tf  he  shall  contijiue,"  mean  the  same  thing. 

8G0.  Formerly  the  subjunctive  was  used  to  express  contin- 
gency, or  doubt,  whether  futuriti/  U'as  implied  or  not.  Of 
this  the  English  Bible  furnishes  examples  on  almost  every  page  (see 
Job  XX.,  12-14),  where  present  usage  would  require  the  indicative. 
The  tendency,  at  present,  is  to  the  other  extreme.  The  present  or 
future  indicative,  or  past  potential,  is  now  more  generally  used  in- 
stead of  the  present  subjunctive  (391);  and  this  has  led  some  gram- 
marians to  reject  the  subjunctive  altogether,  and  to  regard  what  was 
formerly  called  the  present  subjunctive  as  an  elliptical  fonn  of  the 
future  indicative,  or  past  potential.  It  appears  to  be  certain,  how- 
ever, that  there  are  forms  usually  called  the  present  subjunctive, 
established  by  the  authority  of  the  best  writers  of  every  age,  not  ex- 
cepting even  the  present,  which  can  not  be  disposed  of  in  tliis  way  ; 
for  example,  "  It  is  no  matter  whether  this  or  that  be  in  itself  the  less 
or  the  greater  crime." — Lilh. — "  The  question  is  not  whether  man  he  a 
free  agent." — Hdbhes.  ""If  this  he  an  error,  it  is  a  harmless  one."  In 
none  of  these  can  shaM,  or  will,  or  should  be  introduced,  without 
changing  or  destroying  the  sense.  In  all  of  them,  present  usage 
would  substitute  is  for  he.  It  will  not  do,  however,  for  the  gramma- 
rian to  set  up  a  rule,  by  which  established  and  reputable  usage  is  con- 
demned, though  the  present  taste  tends  another  way.  Still,  there 
are  cases  in  which  this  change  is  inadmissible  (390). 

801.  Lest  and  that^,  annexed  to  a  command,  require  the  sub- 
junctive form  ;  as,  "  Love  not  sleep,  lest  thou  come  to  poverty." — 


238  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

•'  Take  heed  that  thou  speak  not  to  Jacob,  either  good  or  bad."  And 
sometimes  without  a  command ;  as,  "  They  shall  bear  thee  ap,  lest 
thou  dash  thy  foot  against  a  stone." —  "Is  not  this  the  fast  that  I  have 
chosen, — that  thou  bring  the  poor  to  thy  house  ?" 

862,  If,  with  but  following  it,  when  futurity  is  denoted,  requires 
the  subjunctive  mood  ;  as,  "  If  he  do  but  touch  the  liills,  they  shall 
smoke."  But  when  future  time  is  iiot  implied,  the  itidicu- 
tive  is  used ;  as,  "  K  he  does  but  whisper,  every  word  is  heard  dis- 
tinctly." 

863,  The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  to  express  a  ivish  or  desire  ; 
as,  "  I  wish  I  were  at  home." — "  Oh  that  he  were  wise !" 

864:,  A  supposition  or  wish,  implying  a  present  denial  of  the 
thing  supposed  or  desired,  is  expressed  by  the  past  subjunctive  ;  as, 
"  If  my  kingdom  were  of  this  world,  then  would  my  servants  fight," 
implying,  "  It  is  not  of  this  world." — "  Oh  that  thou  wert  as  my  bro- 
ther I"  implying,  "  Thou  art  not "  (439,  2). 

EXERCISES   TO  BE   CORRECTED. 

What  verbs,  in  the  following  sentences,  should,  according  to  the 
rule,  be  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  and  what  in  the  indicative  ?  Cor- 
rect them  accordingly — parse  the  sentences  corrected. 

(857)  If  a  man  smites  his  servant  and  he  dies,  he  shall  surely  be  put 
to  death. — We  must  go  to-morrow,  unless  it  rains. — There  will  be 
enough  to  do  next  week,  if  the  weather  is  good. — Though  the  sky  be 
clear,  it  is  cold. — He  will  maintain  his  cause,  though  he  loses  his  es- 
tate.— Ask  John  if  he  know  when  the  legislature  meets. — If  he  know 
any  thing,  he  surely  knows  that,  unless  he  gets  better,  he  can  not  be 
removed. — If  thou  be  the  Son  of  God,  command  that  these  stones  be 
made  bread. 

(861)  Take  care  that  the  horse  does  not  run  away. — See  that  thou 
dost  it  not. — Let  him  that  standeth  take  heed  lest  he  falls. — Kiss  the 
son,  lest  he  is  angry. 

(862)  If  he  is  but  in  health,  it  will  be  the  cause  of  great  thankful- 
ness.— If  he  does  but  run,  he  will  soon  overtake  them. — Oh  that  he 
was  wise  ' — I  wish  I  was  at  home. 

(864)  If  I  was  not  Alexander,  I  would  be  Diogenes. — If  it  was  not 
so,  I  would  have  told  you. — If  he  was  a  year  older,  I  would  send  him 
to  school. — Was  gold  more  abundant,  it  would  be  of  less  value. — Was 
I  he,  I  would  accept  the  offer. 


SYNTAX  —  INFIN^ITIVE.  239 


The  Infinitive  Mood. 

865 >  Efle  XV. — TJie  infinitive  mood  is  governed 
ly  verbs,  nouns,  or  adjectives;  as,  "I  desire  to 
learn." — "A  desire  to  learn." — '■'Anxious  to  loam." 

866 »  The  infinitive  is  a  sort  of  verbal  noun,  and  has  the  construc- 
tion of  both  a  verb  and  a  noun. 

867*  As  a  noun,  the  infinitive  may  be: — 1.  The  subject  of  a 
verb  (394) ;  as,  "  To  play  is  pleasant."  3.  The  object  of  a  verb  (802) ; 
as,  "  Boys  love  to  play"  3.  The  jjredicate-noniinative  after  an 
attributive  verb  (798) ;  as,  "  He  is  to  be  married."  4.  In  apposi- 
tion with  another  noun  (670) ;  as,  "  Spare,  spare  your  friends  the 
task,  to  read,  to  nod,  to  scoff,  condemn."  5.  The  object  of  a  jt^^pO" 
sition  (819) ;  as,  "  About  to  depart." — "  What  went  ye  out  for  to 
see?" 

868,  As  a  verb  (at  the  same  time  that  the  infinitive  is  used  as  a 
noun),  it  may  have  all  the  modifications  of  the  verb  in  respect 
of  time,  government,  or  adjuncts,  forming,  with  them,  an  abridged 
sentencCf  or  clause,  or  phrase  (653) ;  as,  "  To  see  the  sun  at  mid- 
night is  impossible."  Here,  to  see  is  modified  by  its  object  the 
sun,  and  by  the  adjunct  at  midnight,  and  the  whole  phrase  is  the 
subject  of  is.    Hence  the  following 

Special  Mules, 

869,  Rule  1. — On^  verb  being  tTie  subject  (762)  ofanothe/TyiA 
put  in  the  infinitive  ;  as,  "  To  study  is  profitable  "  (872). 

870,  Rule  2. — A  verb  in  the  infinitive  may  be  the  object  of 
another  verb;  as,  "  Boys  love  to  play." — "  They  seem  to  study  (394,' 
C30,  4 ;  802). 

87 1,  Verbs  which  take  the  infinitive  as  their  object,  are  transitive 
verbs  in  the  active  voice  ;  and  the  infinitive,  either  alone,  or  modified 
by  other  words,  is  equivalent  to  the  objective  case  (802).  Verbs  fol- 
lowed by  the  infinitive  as  an  attribute  of  their  subject  are  intransitive 
or  passive  verbs,  which  form  a  sort  of  modified  copula  between  their 
subject  and  the  infinitive  following.  Thus,  "  The  watch  seems  to  go  ** 
="  The  watch  is  apparently  going"  (797). 

872,  Rule  ^.—TJie  infinitive,  as  the  subject  or  the  object  of 


240  ENGLISH    GEAMMAE. 

a  verb,  sometimes  has  a  subject  of  its  own  in  the  objective 

case. 

873.  In  eitlier  construction,  tlie  infinitive,  witli  its  subject,  is  an 
abridged  dependent  clause  (653),  and  wlien  used  as  the  subject, 
is  introduced  hy/br.  Thus,  subject — "  For  us  to  do  so  would  be  im- 
proper "="  That  we  should  do  so  would  be  improper."  Object — "I 
know  him  to  be  an  honest  man  "="  I  know  that  he  is  an  honest  man." 
Here  the  obiect  of  know  is  neither  7iim,  nor  to  be,  etc.,  separately,  but 
the  whole  clause,  "  him  to  be  an  honest  man,"  taken  together,  equiva- 
lent to,  "  that  he  is  an  honest  man." 

874,  In  many  such  sentences,  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  re- 
sembles the  dlrecff  and  the  infinitive  itself  the  indirect  object 
of  the  preceding  verb,  as  in  the  construction  (810).  Hence,  when  the 
verb  is  changed  into  the  passive  form,  the  objective  after  the  active 
verb  (which  is  also  the  subject  of  the  infinitive)  becomes  the  subject 
of  the  passive  verb  in  the  nominative,  and  the  infinitive  remains  after 
it,  like  the  indirect  object  (811).  Thus,  active — "  I  desired  him  to 
go,"    Passive — "  He  was  desired  to  go." 

87i>.  Rule  4. — The  infinitive  is  used  as  a  predicate-nomi- 
native  after  any  verb, as  a  copula  (603) ;  as  "  You  are  to  blame  "  (396). 

870.  When  used  as  a  predicate  nominative  after  the  verb  to  be, 
the  infinitive  denotes — 

1.  An  equivalent  expression  ;  as,  "  To  obey  is  to  enjoy." 

2.  What  is  possible  or  obligatory ;  as,  "Gold  is  to  be  found 
in  California." — "  The  laws  are  to  be  observed." 

3.  What  is  settled  and  determined  upoUj  and,  of  course, 
future  ;  as,  "  The  ship  is  to  sail  to-morrow." 

877'  Rule  5. — To^  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  is  7iotused  after  the 
mrbs  bid,  dare,  need,  make,  see,  hear,  feel,  and  let,  in  the 
active  voice,  nor  after  let  in  the  passive ;  as,  "  I  saw  him  do  it." — 
**  You  need  not  go." — "  He  was  let  go." 

87 8,  To  this  rule  there  are  some  exceptions.  As  it  relates  only 
to  euphony  and  usage,  to  may  be  inserted  when  harshness  will  not 
thereby  be  produced  ;  thus,  "  Conscious  that  his  opinions  need  to  be 
disguised." — McKenzie. 

879 »  For  the  same  reason,  to  is  sometimes  omitted  after  the 
verbs  perceive,  behold,  observe,  have,  and  knoiv. 

880»  When  several  infinitives  come  together  in  the  same  con- 
struction, the  sign  to,  expressed  with  the  first,  is  sometimes  omitted 


SYNTAX  —  INFINITIVE.  241 

before  those  that  follow ;  thus,  "  It  is  better  to  be  a  king  and  die,  than 
to  live  and  he  a  prince."  This  should  never  be  done  when  either  harsh, 
uess  or  obscurity  would  be  the  result. 

881,  To,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  should  never  be  used /or  tha 
infinitive  itself.  Thus,  "  I  have  not  written,  and  I  do  not  intend 
to"  is  a  colloquial  vulgarism  for,  "  I  have  not  written,  and  do  not  in- 
tend to  icrite." 

882,  Rule  6. — TTie  infinitive  is  used  to  express  the  purpose, 

end,  or  design  of  the  preceding  act ;  as,  "  Some  who  came  to  scoff, 
remained  to  pray."  Here,  to  scoff,  and  to  pray  are  not  governed  by 
came  and  remained,  but  are  put  without  a  governing  word,  to  ex- 
press the  end  for  which  they  came  and  remained. 

883,  This  construction  of  the  infinitive  is  sometimes  preceded  by 
the  phrase,  "  in  order,"  and  formerly  was  preceded  by  for ;  as, 
"  What  went  ye  out  for  to  see  ?"    This  is  now  obsolete. 

884:,  Rule  7. — In  comparisons,  the  infinitive  mood  is  put 
after  so  as,  too,  or  than  ;  as,  "  Be  so  good  as  to  read  this  letter," 
— "  Too  old  to  learn." — "  Wiser  than  to  undertake  it."  Some  consider 
this  construction  as  elliptical,  and  that  the  infinitive  depends  on  a 
word  understood. 

885,  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  used  to  assign,  in  an 
abridged  form,  the  reason  of  that  which  goes  before ;  as,  "  Base 
coward  that  thou  art,  tofi^e!" — "Ungrateful  man  !  to  waste  my  for- 
tune, rob  me  of  my  peace,*  etc. — "  Must  not  one  sigh  to  reflect  on  so 
grave  a  subject  ?" 

886,  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  put  absolutely,  without  a 
governing  word  ;  as,  "  To  say  the  truth,  I  was  in  fault." 

887,  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  omitted  ;  as,  "  I  consider  hini 
\to  &«]  an  honest  man." 

888,  The  verb  have,  followed  by  the  infinitive,  sometimes  ex- 
presses ohllgation  or  necessity  ;  as,  "  We  have  to  do  it,"  that  is, 
"We  must  do  it." 

88f),  In  parsing,  the  infinitive,  in  these  several  constructions,  may 

be  briefly  stated  thus  :  "  The  infinitive  as  the  subject  of ," — "  as 

the  object  of ," — "  as  the  predicate-nominative  after ," — "  The 

infinitive  of  purpose — comparis&n — cause — u^ed  absolutely." 

Note. — When  the  infinitive  represents  the  act  of  any  particvJ/vf 
person  or  thing,  its  subject  should  always  be  stated- 


242  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES  TO   BE   CORRECTED. 

[There  is  but  little  liability  to  err  in  the  use  of  this  mood,  except 
in  its  tense  (920,  921),  and  in  the  improper  use  or  omission  of  the  sign 
to.  When  there  is  no  rule  to  authorize  the  omission,  it  should  be 
inserted.] 

(865)  Strive  learn.— They  obliged  him  do  it.— (8G9)  It  is  better  live 
on  a  little  than  outlive  a  great  deal. — It  is  better  to  be  a  king  and  die, 
than  live  and  be  a  prince. — (870)  He  scorns  either  to  temporize,  or 
deceive,  or  be  guilty  of  evasion. 

(877)  You  need  not  to  be  so  serious. — I  have  seen  some  young  per- 
sons to  conduct  themselves  very  discreetly. — He  bid  me  to  go  home. — 
They  all  heard  him  to  say  it, — He  was  heard  say  it  by  everybody. — 
They  were  seen  pass  the  house. — I  have  observed  some  satirists  to 
use  the  term. — Dare  be  wise. — They  were  bid  come  into  the  house. — 
(881)  Be  sure  to  write  yourself,  and  tell  him  to. — I  strive  to  live  as 
God  designed  me  to. 

[Point  out  the  use  of  the  infinitive  in  the  following  correct  sen- 
tences, and  show  how  it  is  governed.] 

It  too  often  happens  that,  to  be  above  the  reach  of  want,  just  places 
us  within  the  reach  of  avarice. — It  does  no  good  to  preach  generosity, 
or  even  justice,  to  those  who  have  neither  sense  nor  soul. — He  was 
born  to  be  great. — They  thought  to  make  themselves  rich.  Great 
desires  are  difficult  to  be  gratified. — To  know  ourselves,  we  must 
commence  by  knowing  our  own  weaknesses. — If  we  have  not  always 
time  to  read,  we  have  always  time  to  reflect. — To  be  or  not  to  be, 
that  is  the  question. — Whatsoever  thy  hand  tindeth  to  do,  do  it  with 
thy  might. 


Construction  of  Participles. 

890*  Rule  XVI. — Participles  have  the  construction 
of  nouns f  adjectives^  and  verbs  (452,  etc.). 

891,  The  participle  as  a  noun,  in  the  nominative  case,  may  be 
the  subject  of  a  verb  (762),  or  the  predicate-noniinutive  after 
it  (798) ;  as,  "  Saying  is  not  doing."  In  the  objective  case,  it  may 
be  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  (802),  or  preposition  (819);  as, 
**  Avoid  doing  evil." — "  There  is  pleasure  in  doing  good." 


SYNTAX  —  PAKTICIPLES.  243 

892.  In  a  substantive  phrase,  a  noun  following  tlio  present  oi 
perfect  participle  (as  well  as  the  infinitive,  799)  of  an  attributive  vert 
(604),  is  in  the  predicate-noininative  ;  as,  "  His  being  an  expert 
dancer" — "  The  crime  of  being  a  young  man,"  etc. 

893.  The  i^articiple,  as  an  adjective,  expresses  an  attrihnte 
of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  tvithout  affirmation  ;  as, "  The  sword 
hangs  rusting  on  the  wall." 

894.  The  jx^^ticijile,  while  used  as  a  noun  or  adjective,  may 
be  inodijied  in  all  respects  as  the  verb  (G30). 

895.  To  participles  used  in  these  ways,  the  rules  of  syntaiC 
for  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs,  may  of  course  be  applied. 

Special  Rules, 

896.  Rule  l.  —  When  the  present  or  perfect  participle  is  used 
as  a  noun,  a  tioun  before  it  is  vut  in  the  jwssessive  case  (841) ; 
as,  "  Much  depends  on  the  pupil's  composing  frequently." — "  John's 
having  done  so  is  evident." 

897.  But  a  pronoun  in  this  construction  must  be  the  possessive 
pronoun,  and  not  the  possessive  case  ;  as,  "  Much  depends  o» 
your  composing,"  etc. — not  yours. 

898.  In  many  cases,  the  nominative  or  the  objective  before  the 
present  participle  as  an  adJectlvCf  will  express  nearly  the  same 
idea.  Thus,  "  Much  will  depend  on  the  pupil's  composing,"  and 
"  Much  will  depend  on  the  pupil  composing,"  mean  substantially  the 
same  thing.  Still,  the  construction  is  different :  in  the  first,  the 
dependence  is  on  the  composing;  in  the  second,  it  is  on  the  pupil ;  and 
though  in  these  examples  the  sense  is  nearly  the  same,  yet  there  are 
often  examples  in  which  the  sense  is  entirely  different  Thus, "  What 
do  you  think  of  my  horse's  running  to-day  ?"  implies  he  Jias  run,  and 
asks,  "  How  do  you  think  he  ran  ?"  But  "  What  do  you  think  of  my 
Iiorse  running  to-day  ?"  implies  he  Jias  not  run,  and  asks,  "  Do  you 
think  he  should  run  ?" 

899.  Rule  3.  —  When  the  present  participle,  used  as  a  noun, 
Jicts  an  article  or  adjective  before  it,  the  preposition  of  follows ; 
as,  "  By  the  observing  of  these  rules." — "  This  was  a  complete  forsaking 
of  the  truth." 

900.  In  this  construction,  the  participle  becomes  simply  a 
noun,  and  can  not  be  modified  as  a  verb.  Hence  we  can  not 
say,  "  By  the  observing  carefully  of  these  rules  ;"  because  the  adverb 


244  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

carefully  can  not  modify  a  noun.  But  we  can  say,  "  By  the  careful 
observing  of,"  etc.  ;  because  careful,  being  an  adjective,  can  modify  a 
noun.  Or  we  can  say,  "  By  observing  these  rules  carefully,"  etc.  ; 
because  the  and  of  being  both  removed,  observing  can  be  modified  as  a 
verb  (932). 

901.  Both  the  article  and  of  may  be  omitted  ;  but  not  the  one 
without  the  other.  By  this  omission,  the  participle  becomes  a  parti- 
cipial noun,  and  can  be  modified  as  the  verb  (462).  Of  can  not  be 
used  when  a  preposition  follows. 

902.  So  here,  again,  in  either  of  these  constructions,  the  sense  in 
many  cases  will  be  the  same.  Thus,  "  By  the  observing  of  these 
rules  he  became  eminent,"  and  "  By  observing  these  rules  he  became 
eminent,"  express  the  same  idea.  But,  as  in  the  other  case  (898),  so 
here,  there  are  examples  in  which  the  sense  is  entirely  different. 
Thus,  "  He  expressed  the  pleasure  he  had  in  the  hearing  of  the  phi- 
losopher," and  "  He  expressed  the  pleasure  he  had  in  hearing  the  phi- 
losopher," mean  entirely  different  things.  So,  "  At  the  hearing  of  the 
ear,  they  will  obey,"  and  "  At  hearing  the  ear,  they  will  obey."  The 
first  is  sense — the  last,  nonsense. 

In  such  cases,  all  ambiguity  will  be  avoided  by  observing  the 
following : — 

903.  Rule  3.  —  When  th^  verbal  noun  expresses  something  of 
which  the  noun  foUotcing  denotes  the  doer,  it  should  have  the 
article  and  the  preposition  ;  as,  "  It  was  said  in  the  hearing  of 
the  witness."  But  when  it  expresses  something  of  which  the  noun 
following  does  not  denote  the  doer,  but  the  object,  both  should  be 
omitted  ;  as,  "  The  court  spent  some  time  in  hearing  the  witness." 

904.  Rule  4. — The  past  particij^le,  and  not  the  past  tense, 
should  he  used  after  the  auociliaries  have  and  be  ;  as,  "  I  have 
written,"  not  wrote. — "  The  letter  is  written,"  not  wrote. 

905.  So,  also,  the  past  participle  should  not  be  used  for  the  past 
tense ;  as,  "  He  ran,"  not  run. — "  I  saw,"  not  seen. — "  I  did,"  not  done. 

906.  In  many  verbs  whose  present  passive  expresses,  not  the  pre- 
sent continuance  of  the  act,  but  the  result  of  the  act  in  a  finished 
state,  the  present  participle  active  has  a  passive  as  well  as  an 
active  sense,  and  is  used  vdth  the  auxiliary  verb  to  be,  to  express  the 
present  passive  progressively ;  as,  "  The  house  is  building,"  not  being 
built.  When,  in  such  verbs,  the  participle  in  ing  has  not  a  passive 
sense,,  or  where  the  use  of  it  in  a  passive  sense  would  be  ambiguous, 
a  different  form  of  expression  should  be  used  (456,  etc.). 


SYNTAX  —  PARTICI.PLES.  245 

907.  The  particljyle  is  sometimes  used  absolutely,  having 
no  dependence  on  any  other  word ;  as,  "  Properly  speaking,  there  is 
no  such  thing  as  chance  "  (769,  770). 

EXERCISES  TO  BE  CORRECTED. 

In  the  following  sentences,  correct  the  errors,  and  give  a  reason  for 
the  change : — 

(893).  Its  being  me  need  make  no  difference. — We  could  not  be  sure 
of  its  being  him. — The  whole  depended  on  its  being  them. 

(896)  Man  rebelling  against  his  Maker  brought  him  into  ruin. — 
Joseph  having  been  sold  by  his  brethren  was  overruled  for  good. — A 
man  being  poor  does  not  make  him  miserable. — (895)  What  do  you 
think  of  my  horse  running  to-day  ?  Did  he  run  well  ? — What  think 
you  of  my  horse's  nmning  to-day  ?    Will  it  be  safe  ? 

(899)  He  spends  part  of  his  time  in  studying  of  the  classics. — ^By  the 
obtaining  wisdom  you  will  command  respect. — By  obtaining  of  wis- 
dom you  will  command  respect. — The  learning  any  thing  well  requires 
application. — Learning  of  any  thing  well  requires  great  apj)lication. — 
Because  of  provoking  his  sons  and  daughters,  the  Lord  abhorred 
them. — (903)  In  the  hearing  of  the  will  read,  and  in  the  examining 
of  simdry  papers,  much  time  was  spent. — The  greatest  pain  is  suffered 
in  the  cutting  of  the  skin. 

(904)  He  has  broke  his  cup.— I  have  drank  enough. — The  tree  was 
shook  by  the  wind. — Tlie  tree  has  fell. — I  seen  the  man  who  done  it. 
— He  has  began  the  work. — Some  fell  by  the  wayside  and  was  trode 
down. 

The  following  sentences  from  E.  Everett,  Daniel  Webster,  Irving, 
N.  A.  Review,  Cboper,  Bancroft,  Thomas  Brown,  Sir  G.  M'Kensie, 
Butler,  etc.,  have  been  changed  into  modern  newspaper  English, 
Restore  them,  according  to  (906). 

The  fortress  was  being  built.— The  si)ot  where  this  new  and  strange 
tragedy  was  being  acted. — An  attempt  was  being  made  in  the  English 
Parliament. — The  magnificent  church  now  being  erected  in  the  city  of 
New  York. — While  these  things  were  being  transacted  in  England. — 
While  the  ceremony  was  being  performed. — The  court  was  then  being 
held. — And  still  be  being  done  and  never  dona — Wheat  is  being  sold 
at  a  fair  price. — Gold  is  being  found  in  great  quantities. — A  report  ia 
now  being  prepared. — Goods  are  now  being  sold  off  at  first  cost.—. 
While  the  necessary  movement  was  being  made. 


?146'  E]S"GLISH    GRAMMAB. 


Connection  of  Tenses. 

008,  EuLE  XVII. — In  the  use  of  verbs,  and  words  that, 
in  point  of  time^  relate  to  each  other,  the  order  of 
time  must  be  observed;  as,  "I  have  known  him  these 
many  years  " — not,  "  I  know  him  these  many  years  f  nor, 
"  I  knew  him  these  many  years/' 

009,  Remark. — The  particular  tense  necessary  to  be  used  must 
(lejjeiid  upon  the  sense,  and  no  rules  can  be  given  that  will 
apply  to  aU  cases.     But  it  may  be  proper  to  observe— 

910,  What  is  always  true  must  be  expressed  in  the  pre~ 
sent  tense  ;  as,  "  The  stoics  believed  that '  all  crimes  are  equal '  "  (403). 

911,  The  present-perfect,  and  not  the  present  tense  should 
be  used  in  connection  with  words  denoting  an  extent  of  time  continued 
to  the  present ;  thus,  "  They  continue  with  me  now  three  days," 
should  be,  "  ha'oe  continued  "  (407). 

912,  The  present-perfect  tense  ought  never  to  be  used  in 
connection  with  words  which  express  2>«s*  time  ;  thus,  "  I  have  for- 
merly  mentioned  his  attachment  to  study,"  should  be,  "  I  formerly 
mentioned,"  etc. 

913,  To  express  an  event  simply  as  past ,  without  relation  to 
any  other  point  of  time  than  the  present,  or  as  taking  place  at  a  cer- 
tain past  time  mentioned,  the  past  tense  is  used ;  as,  "  God  created 
the  world." — "  In  the  beginning,  God  created  the  world."  Exercises 
in  (912)  are  examples. 

914,  When  we  wish  to  represent  an  event  2i^past  at  or  before 
a  certain  past  time  referred  to,  the  verb  must  be  put  in  the  past- 
perfect  tense.  Thus,  when  we  say,  "  The  vessel  had  arrived  at  nine 
o'clock,"  we  mean,  at  nine  o'clock  the  arriving  of  the  vessel  was  past. 
But  when  we  say,  "  The  vessel  arrived  at  nine  o'clock,"  we  mean, 
the  arriving  of  the  vessel  was  then  present. 

915,  It  is  always  essential  to  the  use  of  this  tense  that  the  event 
be  past  at  the  time  referred  to.  It  is  proper  to  notice  here,  also,  that, 
in  pointing  out  the  time  of  a  past  event,  two  points  or  periods  of  time 
are  often  mentioned, — the  one  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  other. 
Thus,  "  We  arrived  an  hour  before  sunset."  Here  the  past-perfect  i8 
not  used,  though  the  arrival  is  represented  as  past  before  a  past  timo 


S  T  }S^  T  A  X  — T  E  N  S  E  S .  247 

mentioned,  viz.,  sunset,  because  sunset  ia  not  the  time  referred  to, 
but  is  mentioned  in  order  to  ilescvibe  that  time  ;  and  at  the  time 
described,  the  event  of  arriving  was  not  past,  but  present.  If  in  this 
example  we  omit  the  word  "  hour,"  and  merely  say  "  before  sunset," 
the  construction  will  be  the  same.  This  will  show  that  it  is  correct 
to  say,  "Before  I  went  to  France  I  visited  England,"  because  the 
visiting  of  England  is  represented  as  present,  and  not  past,  at  the  time 
indicated  by  the  word  before.  But  if  the  event  mentioned  is  repre- 
sented ds  past  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  word  before,  or  if  the  sen- 
tence is  so  arranged  that  only  one  point  of  past  time  is  indicated  at 
which  the  event  referred  to  is  past,  the  jXf'St-pei^fect  must  be  used  ; 
as,  "  They  had  arrived  before  we  sailed." — "  They  arrived  after  we 
had  sailed.'" — IhMd  visited  England  when  we  returned  to  America." 

916.  The  jyresent  &nd  the  past  of  the  auxiliaries  shall,  will, 
tnay,  can,  should  never  he  associated  in  the  same  sentence  ; 

and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  subsequent  verb  be  expressed  in  the 
same  tense  ^vith  the  antecedent  verb  (344) ;  thus,  "  I  may,  or  can  do 
it  now,  if  I  choose." — "  I  might  or  could  do  it  it  now,  if  I  chose." — "  I 
shall  or  will  do  it  when  I  can." — "  I  may  do  it  if  I  can." — "  I  once 
could  do  it,  but  I  would  not." — "  I  would  have  done  it  then,  but  I 
could  not." — "  I  mention  it  to  Mm  that  he  may  stop  if  he  choose." — "  \ 
mentioned  it  to  him  that  he  might  stop  if  he  chose." — "  I  have  men- 
tioned it  to  him,  that  he  may  stop." — "  I  had  mentioned  it  to  him 
that  he  might  stop." — "  I  had  mentioned  it  to  him  that  he  might  have 
stopped,  had  he  chosen." 

i)l7.  In  dependent  clauses,  the  pasi-per/Jgc^  indicative  or  potential 
is  used  to  express  an  event  antecedent  to,  but  never  contemporary 
with,  or  subsequent  to,  that  expressed  by  a  verb  in  the  past  tense  in 
the  leading  clause.  "  Thus,  we  can  say,  "  I  believed  he  had  done  it," 
bat  not,  "  I  hoped  he  had  done  it ;"  because  belief  may  refer  to 
what  is  past,  but  hope  always  refers  to  something  future.  See  also 
the  infinitive  (920,  921). 

i>lS,  When  should  is  used  instead  of  ought  to  express  present 
duty  (363),  it  may  be  followed  by  the  present  or  present-perfect ;  as, 
"  You  should  study,  that  you  may  hecome  learned." 

919,  The  indicative  j^^^^^^^^t  is  frequently  used  after  the 
words  when,  till,  before,  as  soon  as,  after,  to  express  the 
relative  time  of  a  futut^e  action  (406) ;  as,  "  When  he  comes  he 
will  be  welcome."  When  placed  before  the  present-perfect  indicor 
live,  these  words  denote  the  completion  of  a  future  action  or  event  ; 
as,  "  He  will  never  be  better  tiU  he  hua  felt  the  pangs  of  poverty." 


^^S-  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

020.  A  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood  must  be  in  the  present 

temd  (446),  when  it  expresses  what  is  contemporary  in  point  of 
time  with  the  principal  verb,  or  subsequent  to  it ;  as,  "  He  appeared 
to  be  a  man  of  letters." — "  The  apostles  were  determined  to  preach 
the  gospel."  Hence,  verbs  denoting  hope,  desire,  intention,  or 
eoiiininnd,  must  be  followed  by  the  present  infinitive,  and 
not  by  the  perfect  (451). 

f^2J,  But  the  perfect  infinitive  must  be  used  to  express  .what 
is  antecedeut  to  the  time  of  the  principal  verb ;  as,  "  Romulus  is 
said  to  have  founded  Rome. 

EXERCISES  TO  BE   CORRECTED. 

(910)  The  doctor  said  that  fever  always  produced  thirst. — The 
philosopher  said  that  heat  always  expanded  metals. 

(911)  I  know  the  family  more  than  twenty  years. — I  am  now  at 
school  six  months. — My  brother  was  sick  four  weeks,  and  is  no 
better. — He  tells  lies  long  enough. 

(913)  He  has  lately  lost  an  only  son. — He  has  been  formerly  very 
disorderly. — I  have  been  at  London  last  year,  and  seen  the  king  last 
summer. — I  have  once  or  twice  told  the  story  to  our  friend  before  he 
went  away. 

(914)  After  Columbus  made  his  preparations,  he  set  out  on  his  voy- 
age of  discovery. — When  we  finished  our  lessons,  we  went  out  to 
play. — ^He  that  was  dead  sat  up  and  began  to  speak. — It  was  a  strange 
thing  to  me,  for  I  never  saw  such  a  thing  before. 

(916)  I  should  be  obliged  to  him  if  he  will  gratify  me  in  that  par- 
ticular.— Ye  will  not  come  to  me,  that  ye  might  have  life. — Be  wise 
and  good,  that  you  might  be  happy. — He  was  told  his  danger,  that  he 
may  shun  it. 

(917)  We  had  hoped  that  Lord  Nugent  would  have  been  able  to 
collect  much  new  and  interesting  information. — Columbus  hoped  that 
he  would  have  rendered  the  natives  tributary  to  the  crown  of  Spain. 
— We  expected  that  they  would  have  come. 

(918)  He  should  study  diligently,  that  he  might  become  learned. — 
We  should  respect  those  persons,  because  they  continue  long  attached 
to  us. 

(919)  We  shall  welcome  him  when  he  shall  arrive. — As  soon  as  he 
ehall  return  we  will  recommence  our  studies. 


SYKTAX  —  ADVbRBS.  249 

From  the  little  conversation  I  had  with  him,  he  appeared  to 
have  been  a  man  of  learning. — Our  friends  intended  to  have  met  us. — 
He  was  afraid  he  would  have  died. 

(921)  Kirkstall  Abbey,  now  in  ruins,  appears  to  be  an  extensive 
building. — Lycurgus,  the  Spartan  law-giver,  is  said  to  be  born  in  the 
nine  hundred  and  twenty-sixth  year  before  Christ. 


eonstructioii  of  Adverbs. 

922.  EuLE  XVIII. — Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjec-' 
fives ,  and  other  adverbs  ;  as,  "John  speaks  distinctly; 
he  is  remarkably  diligent,  and  reads  very  correctly" 

[See  Etymology  of  Adverbs,  523,  etc.] 

023.  A  few  adverbs  sometimes  modify  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns (526) ;  as  "  Not  only  the  men,  but  the  women  aXsOy  were  pre- 
sent."— "  I,  eten  I,  do  bring  a  flood." — Gen.  vi.  17. 

024:.  An  adverb  sometimes  tnodifies  a  preposition^  and 
sometimes  an  adjunct  or  clause  of  a  sentence  (525) ;  as,  "  He  sailed 
nearly  round  the  globe." — "  Just  helow  the  eajr." — "  Verily^  I  say  unto 
you" 

Special  Hules* 

923,  Rule  1. — Adverbs  sJiould  not  be  used  as  adjectives, 
nor  adjectives  as  adverbs  (686,  687). 

Thus,  "  The  above  [preceding]  extract." — "  It  seems  strangely 
[strange']" — "We  arrived  safely\safe]" — "  He  writes  ieautiful  [beatt- 
tifuUy]." 

Remark  — Though  it  is  perhaps  never  necessary  to  use  an  adverb 
as  an  adjective,  yet  the  authority  of  good  writers  has  so  far  sanc- 
tioned the  violation  of  this  rule  in  certain  cases,  that  remonstrance 
would  be  unavailing.  Thus,  such  phrases  as  the  following  are  com- 
mon :  "  The  above  rule ;" — "  the  then  ministry  ;" — "  for  very  age ;" — 
*  the  liither  side ;" — "  thine  often  infirmities,"  and  the  like.  Adverbs 
so  used  should,  of  course,  be  reckoned  adjectives,  and  parsed  as 
Buch. 

92G,  The  adverbs  hence,  thence,  whence,  meaning/riwi  this 
'place,  from  that  'place,  from  which  place,  properly  should  not  hava 


250  EJ^GLISH    GRAMMAR. 

from  before  them,  because  it  is  implied.  But  the  practice  of  the 
best  writers  has  so  sanctioned  the  use  of  it,  that  the  omission  of  it 
would  now  sometimes  appear  stiff  and  affected. 

927 •  After  verbs  of  motiofif  the  adverbs  hither,  thither, 
whither f  are  now  used  only  in  solemn  style.  In  ordinary  discourse, 
here,  there,  and  where,  are  used  instead  of  them ;  as,  "  We  came  here." 
"  They  walked  there."—"  Where  did  he  go  ?" 

028.  Where  should  not  he  used  for  in  which,  unless  the 
reference  is  to  place.  Thus,  "  They  framed  a  protestation,  where  [bet- 
ter, in  which']  they  repeated  their  former  claims." 

920.  The  adverbs  now,  then,  tvhen,  tvhere,  in  such  phrases 
as  till  now,  till  then,  since  when,  to  where,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  by 
good  writers  as  nouns.  This,  however,  is  rare  in  prose  and  should 
not  be  imitated.    In  poetry  it  is  more  common  (1048). 

030,  Of  this  character  are  the  expressions  €it  once,  far  from 
hence,  etc. ;  but  these  are  now  established  idioms,  and  in  parsing 
d-re  regarded  as  one  tvord  (535,  6). 

OSl,  There,  properly  an  adverb  of  place,  is  often  used  as  an  in- 
troductory encpletive  /  as,  *'  There  came  to  the  beach  a  poor  exile  " 
(529). 

032.  Rule  2. — Two  negatives  in  the  same  clause  are  equiva- 
lent to  an  ajfirniative,  and  should  not  he  used  unless  affirmation  is 
intended ;  as,  "  I  can  not  drink  no  \any\  more,"  or  "  I  can  drink  no 
more." 

Remakk. — ^But  a  repetition  of  the  negation  by  independent 
negative  words  or  phrases,  or  by  transferring  the  word  neither  to  the 
end  of  the  clause,  usually  strengtiiens  the  negation ;  as,  "  There 
is  none  righteous,  no,  not  one." — "  He  will  never  consent,  not  he,  nor 
X  neither." 

033.  One  negative  is  sometimes  connected  with  another  implied 
in  the  negative  prefixes  dls,  un,  ini,  in,  il,  ir,  etc. ;  as,  "  You 
are  not  unacquainted  with  liis  merits,"  that  is,  "  You  are  acquainted," 
etc.  In  this  way  a  pleasing  variety  of  expression  is  sometimes  pro- 
duced. But  the  word  only,  with  the  negative,  preserves  the 
negation  ;  as,  "  He  was  not  only  illiberal,  but  even  covetous." 

034:.  The  adverbs  nay,  no,  yea,  yes,  often  stand  alone  as 
a  negative  or  an  affirmative  answer  to  a  question  ;  as,  "  Will  he  go  ?" 
r^''No"=''  He  will  not  go."— "Is he  at  home?'—"  re«"="He  is  at 


SYNTAX  —  ADVERBS.  251 

home."    Amen  is  an  aflmnative  verb,  equivalent  to  "  Be  it  so,"  or 
"  May  it  be  so." 

933,  No,  before  a  noun,  is  an  adjective;  as,  "  JVo  man.* 
Before  an  adjeefive  or  adverb  in  the  comparative  degree,  it  is  an 
adverb  ;  as,  "  No  taller." — "  No  sooner."  In  all  other  cases  the 
proper  negative  is  not ;  as,  "  He  will  not  come." — "  Whether  he  come 
or  not." 

Position  of  the  Adverb. 

936,  Rule  3. — Adverbs  are  for  the  most  part  placed  before 
adjectives,  after  a  verb  in  the  simple  form,  and  after  the  first 
aujciliari/  in  the  compound  form;  as,  "He  is  tjery  attentive,  be- 
haves well,  and  is  much  esteemed.". 

937,  This  rule  applies  generally  to  adverbial  adjunct  phrases 
as  well  as  to  adverbs  (825). 

938,  This  is  to  be  considered  only  as  a  general  rule,  to  which 
there  are  many  excei^tions.  Indeed,  no  rule  for  the  position  of 
the  adverb  can  be  given  which  is  not  liable  to  exceptions.  That  order 
is  the  best  which  conveys  the  meaning  with  most  precision.  In  order 
to  this,  the  adverb  is  sometimes  placed  before  the  verb,  or  at 
some  distance  after  it. 

939,  Never,  often,  always,  sometitnes,  generally  pre- 
cede the  verb.  Not,  with  the  participle  or  infinitive,  should  gene- 
rally be  placed  before  it  (500). 

940,  The  improper  position  of  the  adverb  only  often  occasions 
ambiguity.  This  will  generally  be  avoided  when  it  refers  to  a  sen- 
tence or  clause,  by  placing  it  at  the  beginning  of  that  sentence  or 
clause ;  when  it  refers  to  a  predicate,  by  placing  it  before  the 
predicated  term ;  and  when  it  refers  to  a  subject,  by  placing  it 
after  its  name  or  description  ;  as,  "  Only  acknowledge  thine  ini- 
quity."— "  The  thoughts  of  liis  heart  are  only  evil." — "  Take  nothing 
for  your  journey  but  a  staff  only."  These  observations  will  generally 
be  applicable  to  the  words  merely,  solely,  chiefly,  first,  at 
least,  and  perhaps  to  a  few  others. 

94:1,  In  prose,  to,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  or  rather  a  part  of  it, 
should  never  be  separated  by  placing  an  adverb  immediately 
after  it.  Thus,  "  They  are  accustomed  to  carefully  study  their  les- 
sons," should  be  "  to  study  carefully,"  or  "  carefully  to  study,"  etc 

942,  The  adverb  enough  is  commonly  placed  after  the  ad* 


252  E  1^  G  L  I  S  H     GRAMMAR. 

Jeetlve  wliicli  it  modifies ;  as,  "A  large  enough  house  " — "  A  lious<* 
large  enough  for  all." 

04:3,  ICver  and  never  are  sometimes  improperly  confounded ; 

thus,  "  Seldom  or  ever,"  -should  be  "  Seldom  or  never,"  or  "  Seldom, 
if  ever."  JEver  so,  referring  to  quantity  or  degree,  means  in  whatso- 
ever degree.  Hence,  "  Charming  never  so  wisely,"  should  be  "  ever 
so  wisely."     So,  "  Ever  so  much  " — "  ever  so  wise,"  etc. 

EXERCISES  TO   BE   CORRECTED. 

[As  adverbs  are  uninflected,  mistakes  are  liable  to  be  made  chiefly 
in  their  position,  or  in  using  as  adverbs  words  that  are  not  so,  or  in 
using  adverbs  where  other  words  are  required.] 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  : — 

(925)  They  hoped  for  a  soon  and  prosperous  issue  to  the  war. — The 
then  emperor  was  noted  for  his  cruelty. — She  walks  graceful. — He 
spoke  eloquent. — She  did  that  work  good. — Our  friends  arrived  safely. 
— Ilis  expressions  sounded  harshly. — She  is  a  remarkable  pretty  girl. 
-  -My  foot  slipped,  and  I  pretty  near  fell  down. 

(926)  He  departed  from  thence  into  a  desert  place. — I  mil  send  thee 
far  from  hence  to  the  Gentiles. — From  hence !  away  I 

(927)  Where  art  thou  gone  ? — And  he  said  unto  me,  "  Come  up 
here." — The  city  is  near,  oh  1  let  me  escape  there. — Where  I  am, 
there  ye  can  not  come. 

(928)  He  drew  up  a  petition,  where  he  represented  his  own  merit. — 
The  condition  where  I  found  him  was  deplorable. — He  went  to  London 
last  year,  since  when  I  have  not  seen  him. 

(932)  I  can  not  do  no  more. — He  will  never  be  no  taller. — He  did 
not  say  nothing  at  all. — I  have  received  no  information  on  the  subject, 
neither  from  him  nor  from  liis  friend. — I  can  not  see  to  write  no  more. 
— Nothing  never  can  justify  ingratitude. — (935)  Be  so  kind  as  to  tell 
me  whether  he  will  do  it  or  no. 

(936)  We  should  not  be  overcome  totally  by  present  events. — We 
always  should  prefer  our  duty  to  our  pleasure. — It  is  impossible  con- 
tinually to  be  at  work. — Not  only  he  found  her  employed,  but  pleased 
and  tranquil  also. — In  the  proper  disposition  of  adverbs,  the  ear  care- 
fully requires  to  be  consulted  as  well  as  the  sense. — They  seemed  to 
be  nearly  dressed  ahke. — (937)  I  wished  that  any  one  would  hang  m© 
a  hundred  times. 

(938)  The  women  contributed  all  their  rings  and  jewels  voluntarily 


SYNTAX  —  CONJUXCTIOKS.  253 

to  assist  tlie  government. — He  determined  to  invite  back  the  king, 
and  to  call  together  his  friends. — (938)  Having  not  known  or  having 
not  considered  the  measures  proposed,  he  failed  of  success. 

(940)  Theism  can  only  be  opposed  to  polytheism. — By  greatness  I 
do  not  only  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single  object,  but  the  distinctness 
of  a  whole  view. — Only  you  have  I  known  of  all  the  nations  of  the 
earth. — In  promoting  the  public  good,  we  only  discharge  our  duty. — 
He  only  read  one  book,  not  two. — He  read  the  book  only,  but  did  not 
keep  it. — He  only  read  the  book,  but  not  the  letter. — He  chiefly  spoke 
of  virtue,  not  of  vice. — He  only  reads  English,  not  French. 

(941)  Scholars  should  be  taught  to  carefully  scrutinize  the  senti- 
ments advanced  in  the  books  they  read. — To  make  this  sentence  per- 
spicuous, it  will  be  necessary  to  entirely  remodel  it. 


Constmction  of  Conjunctions. 

044,  Rule  XIX. — Conjunctions  connect  words ^ 
phrases f  or  sentences  (561). 
945.  Words  of  the  same  class,  having  a  similar  relation 

to  another  word  to  which  they  belong,  are  connected  by  a  conjunction. 
Thus— 

1.  Nouns  OT pronouns  ;  as,  "  Ja/mes  and  John  and  /are  here." 

2.  Adjectives  ;  as,  "  h. 'prudent,  hrave,  and  honorable  man." 

3.  Verbs  ;  as,  "  Caesar  came,  and  saw,  and  conquer ed^ 

4.  Adverbs,  or  adverbs  and  adjuncts  ;  as,  "  He  won  the  prize 

fairly  and  honorably''  or  "fairly  and  vrith  honor"  or  with 
fairness  and  with  honor." 

5.  Prepositions  ;  as,  "  To  and  from  the  city. — "  Tip  and  down 

the  hill." 
04:S,    Verbs  connected  have  the  same  subject;   as,  "James 
reads  and  writes." 

947.  Nouns  or  pronouns  connected  in  the  nominative  case, 
either  as  subjects  or  attributes,  are  related  as  such  to  the  same 
verb  ;  as,  "  John  and  James  are  cousins." — "  He  is  a  gentleman  and 
a  scholar." 

948.  Nouns  or  pronoxms  connected  in  the  possessive  case  limUs 
ihe^same  fioun;  as,  "John's  and  James's  Ixwks." 


254  ElS^GLISH    GRAMMAE. 

949.  Nouns  or  pronouns,  connected  in  the  objective  case,  are 
the  object  of  the  same  verb  or  preposition  ,  as,  "  He  studies  ^^rammar 
and  logic." — "  Give  the  books  to  him  and  me." 

950.  When  nominatives  belong  to  different  verbs,  or  verbs  to 
different  nominatives,  the  conjunction  connects  the  sentences, 
not  the  words  ;  as,  "John  reads  and  James  writes." 

951.  Siuf/le  sentences  or  clauses  are  connected  by  conjunc- 
tions, so  as  to  form  one  compound  sentence;  as,  "I  said  that  ye 
are  gods  ;  but  ye  shall  die." 

952.  Similar  sentences ,  whether  dependent  or  independent, 
aro  connected  by  the  conjunctions  and,  or,  nor,  but,  yet,  etc. 

953.  Dependent  clauses  are  connected  with  their  leading 
clauses  by  such  conjunctions,  or  other  connective  words,  as  may  pro- 
perly indicate  the  relation  intended  (962,  963). 

954:,  Conjunctions  are  frequently  understood  between  the 
words  or  sentences  connected  ;  as,  "  Caesar  came,  saw,  and  conquered." 
— "  The  men,  women,  and  children,  were  present." — "  It  is  the  part  of 
those  that  are  great,  to  give ;  of  those  that  are  poor,  to  ask." — 
"  Learning  collects  materials  ;  wisdom  applies  them." 

Special  Mules, 

955.  EuLE  1. — Conjunctions  connect  the  same  m^oods  and 
tenses  of  verbs,  and  the  satne  cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns  ;  as, 
"Bo  good,  and  seek  peace." — "  Honor  thy  father  and  mother." 
[This  rule  applies  to  the  infinitive  smd  participles.] 
950.  Verbs  of  the  same  mood  and  tense,  under  this  rule,  are 
generally  also  in  the  same  form  (475) ;  as,  "  He  reads  and  writes  " 
— not,  does  write. 

957.  Verbs  in  different  clauses,  connected  by  a  conjunction,  but 
having  a  different  construction,  may  be  in  different  moods  and  tenses  ; 
as,  "  I  read  that  I  may  learn." 

958.  When  two  or  more  verbs  in  the  compound  tenses,  or  in 
the  progressive  or  emphatic  form,  or  in  the  passive  voice,  are  con- 
nected, the  auxiliary  expressed  with  the  first  may  be  under- 
stood to  the  rest ;  as,  "  He  can  neither  read  nor  write." — "  Dili- 
gence should  he  commended  and  rewarded."  Still,  however,  the  repe- 
tition of  the  auxiliary  is  often  more  emphatic  ;  as,  "  They  shall  come, 
and  they  shall  declare  his  truth." 

959.  Verbs  of  the  same  mood,  tense,  or  form,  connected  as  a  com- 


SYNTAX  —  CONJUNCTIONS.  255 

pound  predicate  (637),  have  the  subject  expressed  with  the  first  and 
understood  to  the  rest ;  as,  " Caesar  came,  saw,  and  conquered'^ 
But— 

060.  When  verbs  connected  are  not  of  the  same  mood,  tense,  ot 
form,  and  especially  if  contrast  or  opposition,  expressed  by  hut, 
though,  yet,  is  intended,  the  nominative  is  frequently  repeated ; 
as,  "  He  came,  but  lie  would  not  stay."    But  still — 

061.  This  is  to  be  regarded  only  as  a  general  direction,  in  accord- 
ance with,  perhaps,  the  majority  of  cases,  but  to  which,  as  a  rule, 
there  are  many  exceptions.  The  object  aimed  at  is  to  secure 
euphony  and  perspicuity  ;  and  when  these  are  preserved  with- 
out repeating  the  subject,  it  may  be  omitted  ;  as,  "  The  two  charges 
liad  been,  and  still  are,  united  in  one  person." — North  British  Review. 

062.  After  expressions  implying  doubt,  fear,  or  denial,  the 

conjunction  that  is  properly  used — not  lest,  hut,  hut  that ;  as,  "  I  do 
not  doubt  that  he  is  honest." — "  I  am  afraid  that  he  will  die."  Also, 
what  should  never  be  used  for  that.  Thus,  "  He  will  not  believe  but 
whai  I  am  to  blame,"  should  be,  "  but  that  I  am  to  blame." 

063.  Rule  2. — Certain  words  in  the  antecedent  clause  of  a 
sentence  require  corresponding  connectives  in  the  subsequent 
one  ;  thus  : — 

1.  In  clauses  or  words  simply  connected — 

Soth      requires  arid  (569) ;  as,  "Both  he  and  I  came." 

Either     or  (570) ;  as,  "Either  he  or  I  will  come." 

Neither  nor  (570) ;  as,  "  Neither  he  nxyr  I  came." 

Whether or  ;  as,  "  Whether  he  or  I  came." 

TJwugh  yet ;  as,  "  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I 

trust  in  him." 
Not  only hut  also ;  as,  "  Not  only  he  hut  also  his 

brother  goes." 

2.  In  clauses  connected  so  as  to  imply  comparison — 

The  comparative  degree  requires  than;  as,  "  He  is  taUer 

than  I. 
Other  requires  than  ;  as,  "  It  is  no  other  than  he" 

Else      than  ;  as,  "  What  else  do  you  expect  than  this  ?" 

A.S         as  (expressing  equality) ;  as,  "  He  is  as  tall  aa 

I  am." 

A.S         so  (expressing  equality) ;  as,  "  As  the  day  is,  so 

shall  thy  strength  be." 


256  EKGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

So  requires  as  (with  a  negative,  expressing  inequality) ;  asj 
"  He  IS  not  so  learned  as  his  brother.* 

So  that  (expressing  consequence) ;  as,  "  He  is  so 

weak  that  he  can  not  walk." 

Such as  (expressing  similarity);  as,    "He  or  such 

as  he." 

Such  that  (with  a  finite  verb,  to  express  a  conse- 
quence) ;  as,  "  The  difference  is  sucJi 
that  all  will  perceive  it." 

For  as  and  so  in  comparison,  see  531.  For  as,  sometimes  regarded 
as  a  relative,  see  271 ;  as  a  connective  of  words  in  apposition,  674. 
For  the  infinitive  after  so — as,  see  884. 

064,  Andf  or,  nor,  do  not  require  the  corresponding  antece- 
dent, and  though  does  not  always  require  yet.  By  poetic  license 
(1048,  6),  or  and  nor  are  sometimes  used  as  antecedents,  instead  of 
eitlier,  neither  (570). 

965,  In  sentences  implying  comparison,  there  is  commonly 
an  ellipsis  in  the  second  member,  after  than  and  as  ;  "  My  pun- 
ishment is  greater  than  \that  is  whicK\  I  can  bear." — "  My  punish- 
ment is  as  great  as  \that  is  which]  I  can  bear."  And  sometimes 
in  sentences  not  implying  comparison,  after  though  and  if ;  as, 
"  Though  \it  is]  coarse  it  is  good." — "  He  is  kind,  if  [he  is]  sincere  " 
(973,  7). 

066,  A  relative  after  than  is  put  in  the  objective  case ;  as, 
*'  Satan,  than  whom  none  higher  sat "  (766,  2).  This  anomaly  may 
be  regarded  as  a  case  of  simple  enallage  (1044,  4). 

067*  RuiiE  3. —  Wlien  a  subsequent  clause  or  part  of  a  sen- 
tence is  comm^on  to  two  different  but  connected  antecedent  clauses,  it 
must  he  equally  applicable  to  both  ;  as,  "  That  work  always  has  been, 
and  always  will  be,  admired." — "  He  is  as  tall,  though  not  so  hand- 
some, as  his  brother." 

068,  When  this  rule  is  violated,  the  correction  is  made,  either — 

1.  By  altering  one  of  the  antecedent  clauses,  so  that  the  subsecuent 
may  be  applicable  to  both.  Thus,  "  The  story  has  and  will  be  be- 
lieved," is  not  correct,  because,  though  we  can  say,  loUl  be  believed,  we 
can  not  say,  has  be  believed.  It  should  be,  "  The  story  has  been,  and 
will  be  believed,"  or — 

2.  If  this  can  not  be  done,  we  may  complete  the  construction 
of  the  first  part  by  annexing  its  appropriate  subsequent,  and  leave 


SYNTAX  —  COKJUNCITIOi^^S.  2DT 

the  subsequent  of  the  second  understood.  Thus,  "He  was  more 
beloved,  but  not  so  much  admired,  as  Cynthio,"  is  not  correct,  because 
we  can  not  say,  "  He  was  more  beloved  as  Cynthio."  It  should  be, 
"  He  was  more  beloved  than  Cynthio,  but  not  so  much  admired." 

969.  The  principle  of  tliis  rule  applies  to  the  appropriate  seleC" 
tioii  of  words,  as  well  as  to  their  canstructioiu  Thus,  "  This  doc- 
trine is  founded  and  consistent  with  the  truth,"  should  be,  "  founded 
upon  and  consistent  with,"  etc. 

EXEECISES  TO  BE  CORRECTED. 

In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  conjunctions,  the  words  or 
sentences  connected  by  them — see  whether  they  correspond,  according 
to  the  rules,  and  if  not,  correct,  and  give  a  reason  for  the  change. 

(955)  He  reads  and  wrote  well. — Anger  glances  into  the  breast  of 
a  wise  man,  but  will  rest  only  in  the  bosom  of  fools. — If  he  under- 
stand the  subject,  and  attends  to  it,  he  can  scarcely  fail  of  success. — 
Enjoying  health,  and  to  live  in  peace,  are  great  blessings. — Be  more 
anxious  to  acquire  knowledge  than  about  showing  it. 

You  and  me  are  great  friends. — This  is  a  small  matter  between 
you  and  I. — My  father  and  him  are  very  intimate. — ^He  is  taller  than 
me ;  but  I  am  older  than  him. 

(956)  He  reads  and  writeth  well. — He  reads  and  does  write  well. — 
He  reads  and  is  writing  well. — Does  he  not  read  and  writes  well  ? — 
Earth  liath  her  solitudes,  and  so  has  life. 

(958)  He  can  neither  read  nor  can  write. — I  will  come  and  will  see 
you,  and  will  tell  you  the  whole  story. 

(960)  Can  these  persons  consent  to  such  a  proposal,  and  will  con- 
sent to  it  ? — How  distinguished  for  talents  he  is,  and  how  useful 
might  be  1 — He  could  command  his  temper,  though  would  not. 

(962)  I  do  not  deny  but  he  has  merit. — They  were  afraid  lest  you 
would  be  offended. — We  were  apprehensive  lest  some  accident  had 
happened  to  him. — We  can  not  deny  but  what  he  was  ill-treated. 

(963, 1)  It  is  neither  cold  or  hot. — It  is  so  clear  as  I  need  not  ex- 
plain it. — The  relations  are  so  uncertain,  as  that  they  require  much 
examination. — The  one  is  equally  deserving  as  the  other. — I  must  be 
so  candid  to  own  that  I  have  been  mistaken. — He  was  as  angry  as  he 
could  not  speak. — Though  he  slay  me,  so  will  I  trust  in  him. — He 
must  go  himself,  or  send  a  servant. — There  is  no  condition  so  secure 
as  can  not  admit  of  change. — He  is  not  so  eminent  and  as  much 
esteemed  as  he  tliinks  himself  to  be. 


2j»  English  grajimae 

(963,  2)  He  has  little  more  of  the  scholar  besides  the  name. — Be 
ready  to  succor  such  persons  who  need  thy  assistance. — They  had  no 
sooner  risen  but  they  applied  themselves  to  their  studies. — These 
savage  people  seemed  to  have  no  other  element  but  war. — He  gained 
nothing  further  by  his  speech  but  only  to  be  commended  for  his 
eloquence. — This  is  none  other  but  the  gate  of  Paradise. 

(967)  I  always  have,  and  I  always  shall  be  of  this  opinion. — He  is 
bolder,  but  not  so  wise  as  his  companion..  Sincerity  is  as  valuable,  and 
even  more  so  than  knowledge. — Will  it  be  urged  that  these  books 
are  as  old  or  even  older  than  tradition  ? — This  book  is  preferable  and 
cheaper  than  the  other. 


Prepositions. 

,970.  Rule  XX. — A  preposition  sJioios  tJie  relation 
Utiveen  the  subsequent  of  its  phrase  and  the  word 
tvhich  the  phrase  limits ;  as,  "  The  book  lies  ok 
the  tahW^ — "  The  fear  or  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of 
wisdom." — "  I  am  confident  of  success.^' 

971*  Whatever  word  is  limited  or  described  by  the  prepositional 
phrase  as  a  whole,  is  the  antecedent  term  of  the  relation.  The  prin- 
dpal  substantive  in  the  objective  case  is  the  subsequent  term. 


Interjections. 

972.  EuLE  XXL — Interjections  have  no  gram^ 
matical  connection  with  the  other  words  in  a  sentence 
(556).  I 

97 S*  After  interjections,  pronouns  of  the  first  person  r.re  com-* 
monly  in  the  objective  case  ;  those  of  the  second,  in  the  nonii- 
iiative  ;  as,  "  Ah  me  !  " — "  O  thou ! " 

In  neither  of  these,  however,  does  the  case  depend  on  the  interjec- 
tion. The  objective  generally  depends  upon  a  word  understood  ; 
thus,  "  Ah  \_pity\  me  !  " — "  Ah  \what  will  become  <?/]  me  !  "  The 
nominative  is  commonly  the  nominative  independent  (773), 


SYNTAX  — GENTERAL    RULE.  259 


General  Rule  of  Syntax. 

074.  In  ever  J/  sentence,  the  words  employed,  and  the 
order  in  which  they  are  arranged,  should  he  such  as  clearly 
and  properly  to  express  the  idea  intended  ;  and  at  the  same 
time,  all  the  parts  of  the  sentence  should  correspond,  and  a 
regular  and  dependent  construction  he  preserved 
throughout, 

O  75.  Among  the  evils  to  be  guarded  against,  under  this  general 
rule,  for  which  no  very  specific  rule  can  be  given,  are  the  following : — 

1.  The  use  of  words  which  do  not  correctly  convey  the  idea 
intended,  or  which  convey  another  with  equal  propriety. 

2.  The  arrangement  of  words  and  clauses  in  such  a  way  that  their 
relation  to  other  words  and  clauses  is  doubtful  or  obscure. 

3.  The  sepai'atlng  of  adjuncts  (541)  from  their  princi- 
pals, and  placing  them  so  that  they  may  be  joined  to  words 
to  which  they  do  not  belong  (832). 

4.  The  separating  of  relative  clauses  improperly  frotn  their 
antecedents  (755,  759). 

5.  Using  injudiciously,  or  too  frequently,  the  third  personal  or 
possessive  pronoun,  especially  in  indirect  discourse  (1129). 

EXERCISES. 

The  following  sentences  are  not  grammatically  incorrect,  but  from 
some  of  the  causes  mentioned  above,  are  obscure,  inelegant,  ambiguous, 
or  unintelligible.    Point  out  the  error,  correct  it,  and  give  a  reason. 

The  son  said  to  his  father  that  he  had  sinned  against  heaven. — A 
farmer  went  to  a  lawyer,  and  told  him  that  his  bull  had  gored  his 
ox. — The  Greeks,  fearing  to  be  surrounded  on  all  sides,  wheeled  about, 
and  halted  with  the  river  on  their  backs. — Nor  was  Philip  wanting 
to  corrupt  Demosthenes,  as  he  had  most  of  the  leading  men  ot 
Greece. — Parmenio  had  served,  with  great  fidelity,  Philip  the  father 
of  Alexander,  as  well  as  himself,  for  whom  he  first  opened  the  way 
into  Asia, — Belisarius  was  general  of  all  the  forces  under  Justinian 
the  First,  a  man  of  rare  valor. — Lysias  promised  his  father  never  to 
abandon  his  friends. — Carthage  was  demolished  to  the  ground,  so 


260  ENGLISH     GRAMMA  E. 

that  we  are  unable  to  say  where  it  stood,  at  this  day. — Thus  ende^ 
the  war  with  Antiochus,  twelve  years  after  the  second  Punic  war,  and 
two  after  it  had  been  begun. — Claudius  was  canonized  among  the 
gods,  who  scarcely  deserved  the  name  of  a  man. 

970,  Another  class  of  improprieties  arises  from  the  improper 
omission  of  words,  by  which  the  grammatical  construction  of  it 
sentence  is  broken  up.  As  a  general  rule,  the  fewer  the  words  by 
which  we  express  our  ideas,  the  better,  provided  the  meaning  is 
clearly  brought  out.  This  may  often  be  done  without  using  all  the 
words  necessary  to  the  full  grammatical  form  of  a  sentence  ;  and  hence, 
as  the  tendency  always  is  to  abbreviate  speech,  such  words  as  can  be 
spared,  according  to  the  usage  of  the  language,  are  properly  omitted. 
This  omission  is  called 


Ellipsis  (1044,  1). 

Respecting  the  use  of  this  figure,  nothing  more  definite  can  be  laid 
down  than  what  is  contained  in  the  following 

Special  Mules, 

977*  Rule  1. — An  ellipsis ,  or  omission  of  words,  is  admis- 
sible when  they  can  he  supplied  hy  the  mind  with  such  certainty  and 
readiness  as  not  to  obscure  the  sense.    Thus, 

Instead  of  saying,  "  He  was  a  learned  man,  and  he  was  a  wise  man, 
and  he  was  a  good  man,"  we  may  say,  "  He  was  a  learned,  wise,  and 
good  man." 

97 S,  According  to  common  usage,  an  ellipsis  of  the  diflerent 
parts  of  speech  is  allowed  in  the  following  cases,  viz. : — 

1.  Noun  and  Pronoun, — When  two  or  more  things  arc  as- 
serted of  the  same  subject,  the  noun  or  pronoun  is  expressed  before 
the  first  verb,  and  omitted  before  the  rest.  Also,  when  the  same  noun 
or  pronoun  is  the  object  of  several  verbs,  it  is  omitted  after  all  except 
the  last ;  as,  "  I  love,  fear,  and  respect  him,"  instead  of,  "  I  love  Am, 
/fear  him,  and  /respect  him." 

3.  A  noun  is  frequently  omitted  after  the  comparative  degree  ;  as, 
"  I  will  pull  down  my  barns,  and  build  greater  [barns]." 

3.  When  two  or  more  adjectives  qualify  the  same  noun,  the  noun 
is  omitted  after  all  except  the  last ;  as,  "  A  great,  wise,  and  good 
man,"  for  "  A  great  man,  a  wise  man,  and  a  good  man." 


SYNTAX  —  ELLIPSIS.  2G1 

4.  Adjective  and  Article. — Wlien  an  adjective  qualifies  two 
or  more  nouns,  it  is  omitted  before  all  except  the  first  only ;  as,  "  Good 
qualities  and  actions." — "  Happy  boys  and  girls." — "  He  is  an  honest, 
learned,  and  well-bred  man,"  for  "  an  honest,  a  learned,  and  a  well- 
bred  man." 

5.  Verbs, — A  verb  is  often  omitted  after  its  subject,  preceded  by 
the  comparative  degree ;  as,  "  He  is  wiser  than  I  [am]."—"  I  am 
younger  than  he  [**«]." 

6.  When  several  clauses  come  together,  having  the  same  predicate 
verb,  the  verb  is  often  expressed  in  the  first,  and  omitted  in  the  rest ; 
as,  "  The  Italians  have  imitated  the  Latins  ;  the  English,  the  Italians ; 
and  the  Americans,  the  English."  Sometimes  it  is  omitted  in  the  first, 
and  expressed  in  the  last ;  as,  "  Not  only  men,  but  nations,  imitate 
one  another." 

7.  The  verb  to  he,  with  its  subject,  in  dependent  clauses,  is  often 
otnitted  after  the  connectives,  if,  though^  yet,  ivhen,  etc. ;  as, 
"  Study,  if  [it  is]  neglected,  becomes  irksome." — "  Though  [he  was] 
poor,  he  was  honest  "  (965). 

8.  In  2^oetri/,  verbs  which  express  address  or  answer,  are 
often  omitted ;  as,  "  To  him  the  prince  [replied]."  Also,  when  the 
words  connected  readily  indicate  what  the  verb  must  be,  if  expressed ; 
as,  "I'll  hejice  to  London." — "Til  in." — "  Away,  old  man!" — Shaks. 
"  Up,  up,  Glenarkin !"— Tf.  Scott. 

9.  The  verb  is  often  omitted  in  the  second  clause  of  a  sentence 
after  the  auxiliary,  when  the  same  verb  is  used  in  the  first 
clause  ;  as,  "  You  have  read,  but  I  have  not  [read]."  Also,  verbs  con- 
nected in  the  same  voice,  mood,  and  tense,  having  the  auxiliary  with 
the  first,  omit  it  with  the  rest ;  as,  "  He  mil  be  loved^&nd  respected  for 
his  virtues." 

10.  Adverb. — When  an  adverb  modifies  more  words  than  one, 
it  is  placed  only  ivith  the  last ;  as,  "  He  spoke  and  acted  grace- 
fully." 

11.  Preposition. — When  the  same  preposition  connects  two  or 
more  subsequent  tei-ms  of  a  relation  with  one  antecedent  term, 
is  it  usually  omitted  before  all  except  the  first ;  as,  "  Omr  the 
hills  and  valleys." — "  Tlirough  the  woods  and  wilds." 

12.  Conjunction. — When  several  words  and  clauses  come 
iogether  in  the  same  construction,  the  conjunction  is  sometimes  omit- 
ted entirely,  sometimes  between  each  pair,  and  sometimes  before  all 


262  ENGLISH    GRAMMA  e; 


except  the  last ;  as,  "  He  caused  the  blind  to  see,  the  lame  to  walk,  i 
the  deaf  to  hear,  the  lepers  to  be  cleansed." — "  We  ran  hither  and  I 
thither,  seeking  novelty  and  change,  symj  athy  and  pastime,  com-  ' 
munion  and  love." — "  Youth  is  the  season  of  joy,  of  bliss,  of  strength,  j 
and  pride."  \ 

13.  Interjection. — The  interjections  are  never  omitted  ;  but,  in  | 
the  expression  of  sudden  emotion,  all  but  the  most  important  words  \ 
are  commonly  omitted ;  as,  "  Well  done !"  for,  "  That  is  well  done  !"  • 
Also,  after  interjections,  there  is  often  an  ellipsis  of  the  obvious  word ;  j 
as,  "  O  for  a  lodge,"  etc.,  that  is,  "  O  how  I  long  for  a  lodge,"  etc. —  ! 
"  A  horse !  a  horse  !  my  kingdom  for  a  horse !"  that  is,  "  Bring  me  j 
a  horsa    I  would  give  my  kingdom  for  a  horse."  \ 

979.  Rule  2. — An  ellipsis  is  tiot  allowable ,  when  it  would  \ 
obscure  the  sentence,  weaken  its  force,  or  he  attended  with  an  impro^  '■ 
priety;  as,  "  We  speak  that  we  do  know,"  for  that  which,  etc.  ' 

980.  In  general,  no  word  should  be  omitted  by  ellipsis,  that  is  : 
necessary  to  the  usual  construction  or  harmony  of  a  sentence,  or  '. 
to  render  the  meaning  perspicuous.  \ 

981,  Articles,  pronouns,  and  prepositions,  should  always  be  j 
vepeated  when  the  words  with  which  they  stand  connected  are  | 
used  emphatically.  Under  such  circumstances,  even  nouns,  ad-  i 
jectives,  and  verbs,  must  often  be  repeated  ;  as,  "  Not  only  the  year,  « 
but  the  day  and  the  hour  were  appointed."  ' 

982,  It  is  generally  improper,  except  in  poetry,  to  omit  the  ante-  \ 
cedent  to  a  relative  ;  and  it  is  always  so,  to  omit  a  relative,  when  \ 
it  is  in  the  nominative.  ; 

EXERCISES  TO   BE   CORRECTED.  ! 

In  the  following  sentences,  omit  such  words  as  are  not  necessary  to  j 
the  sense  : —  1 

(978,  1)  Cicero  was  an  eloquent  man,  an  able  man,  a  generous  man,  i 
and  he  was  a  truly  patriotic  man. — Avarice  and  cunning  may  gain  an  i 
estate ;  but  avarice  and  cunning  can  not  gain  friends. — (978,  4)  He  has  i 
an  affectionate  brother  and  an  affectionate  sister. — (9r8,  G)  Genuine  \ 
virtue  supposes  our  benevolence  to  be  strengthened  and  to  be  con-  \ 
firmed  by  principle. — Perseverance  in  laudable  pursuits  will  reward  j 
all  our  toils,  and  will  produce  effects  beyond  our  calculation. —  ; 
(978,  10)  We  often  commend  imx)rudently,  as  well  as  censure  impru-  - 
dently.— (978, 11)  Changes  are  almost  constantly  taking  place  iw  men,  \ 


SYISTTAX  —  PARSIl^G  2G3 

and  in  manners,  in  opinions  and  in  customs,  in  private  fortunes  and 
in  public  conduct. — (978,  1,  6,  9)  He  is  temperate,  he  is  disinterested, 
lie  is  benevolent. — He  regards  the  truth,  but  thou  dost  not  regard  it 
— We  succeeded,  but  they  did  not  succeed. 

In  the  following  sentences,  supply  the  words  improperly  omitted, 
and  state  why  they  should  be  restored : — 

(979)  We  are  naturally  inclined  to  praise  who  praise  us,  and  U 
flatter  who  flatter  us. — Who  best  can  sufier  best  can  do. — His  honoj, 
interest,  religion,  were  all  embarked  in  this  imdertaking. — Many  days, 
and  even  weeks,  pass  away  unimproved. — The  captain  had  several 
men  died  in  his  ship. — That  is  a  property  most  men  have,  or  at  least 
may  attain. — This  property  has  or  wiU  be  sold. — It  requires  few 
talents  to  which  most  men  are  not  born,  or  at  least  may  not  acquire. 
— The  people  of  tliis  country  possess  a  healthy  climate  and  soil. — I 
have  purchased  a  house  and  orchard. 


SYNTACTICAL  PARSING. 

983.  Syntactical  JParsing  includes  etymologicat, 
aud  adds  to  it  a  statement  of  the  relation  in  wliich 
words  stand  to  each  other,  and  the  rules  according  to 
which  they  are  combined  in  phrases  and  sentences. 

Before  parsing  a  sentence  syntactically,  it  should  first  be  ana- 
lyzedf  as  directed  (658),  and  exemplified  (659). 

Model  of  Syntactical  Parsing, 

**  The  minutest  plant  or  animal,  if  attentively  examined,  affords  a 
thousand  wonders,  and  obliges  us  to  admire  and  adore  the  Omnipotent 
hand  by  which  it  was  created." 

This  sentence  contains  all  the  parts  of  speech  except  the  interjection. 
It  is  parsed  etymologically  (581,  582),  and  analyzed  (659,  7),  which 
see.     It  may  now  be  parsed  syntactically,  as  follows  : — 
The is  the  definite  abticle  ;  it  belongs  to  plant  or  animal 

(711),  and  shows  these  words  to  be  limited. — Rule  III., 

2,  "  The  article  tJie  is  put,"  etc.  (707). 
minutest, ...  is  an  adjective,  compared  here  by  er  and  est,  superla- 

tive,  and  qualifies  plant  or  animal, — ^RtTLE  IL,  1,  '*  Aj% 

adjective  or  participle,"  etc  (676). 


264  :en-glish  grammar. 

plant is  a  noun,  neuter,  in  the  nominative  singular,  tlie  sub- 
ject of  affords  and  oUiges. — Rux,E  VI.,  "  Tlie  subject  of 
a  finite  verb,"  etc.  (7G0). 

or is  a  disjunctive  conjunction,  distributive,  connecting 

as  alternates  plant  and  animal  (567). — Rule  XIX,, 
"  Conjunctions  connect,"  etc.  (944). 

animal is  a  noun,  neuter,  in  tbe  nominative  singular — same  as 

plant — and  connected  with  it  by  or. 

if   is  a  conjunction,  continuative ;  it  connects  its  clause 

with  tlie  preceding  as  a  condition. — Rule  XIX.,  "  Con- 
junctions connect,"  etc.  (944). 

t^. , .    .  (understood)  is  a  third  peksonal  pronoun,  neuter,  in 

the  nominative  singular  ;  it  stands  for  plant  or  animal. 
Rule  IV.,  2,  "  When  a  pronoun  refers,"  etc.  (730) ;  and 
is  the  subject  of  is  examined. — Rule  VI.,  "  The  subject 
of  a  finite  verb,"  etc.  (760). 

is  examined,  is  a  verb,  transitive,  regular,*  in  the  present  indicative, 
passive,  expressing  an  act  done  to  its  subject  it,  with 
which  it  agrees. — Rule  VIII.,  "A  verb  agrees,"  etc. 
(776). 

attentively  . .  is  an  adverb,  derived  from  attentive,  and  compared  by 
more  and  most ;  it  modifies  is  examined. — Rule  XVIII., 
Adverbs  modify,"  etc.  (922). 

affords is  a  verb,  transitive,  regular ;  in  the  present  indicative, 

active,  third  person  singular ;  agrees  with,  and  affirms 
of  plant  or  a/iiwa?.— Rule  3  under  Rule  VIII.,  "  Two 
or  more  substantives  singular,"  etc.  (785). 

a is  the  indefinite  article,  and  belongs  to  thousand. 

It  shows  that  the  number  is  regarded  as  one  aggregate 
(716).— Rule  III.,  1,  "  The  article  a  or  an;'  etc.  (707, 
726). 

thousand, ...  is  a  numeral  adjective,  cardinal,  qualifying  wonders. 
— Rule  II.,  1,  "An  adjective  or  participle,"  etc.  (676). 

wonders is  a  noun,  neuter,  in  the  objective  plural,  the  object  of 

affords. — Rule  X.,  "A  substantive  being  the  object," 
etc  (801). 


*  Conjugating  is  here  omitted  for  brevity,  it  being  unnecessary,  be- 
cause the  verb  is  mentioned  as  regular  (491,  note). 


SYNTAX  —  PARSING.  265 

and is  a  coput^ative  conjunction  ;  it  connects  affords  and 

(Migea. — Rule  XIX.,  "  Conjunctions  connect,"  eta  (944). 

obliges is  tlie  same  as  affords.    See  above. 

t« is  a  PERSONAL  PRONOUN,  first  person,  masculine   or 

feminine,  in  the  objective  plural,  the  object  of  obliges. — 
Rule  X.  (801).  It  is  at  the  same  time  the  subject  of  to 
admire  and  to  adore. — Rule  3  imder  Rule  XV.,  "  The 
infinitive  as  the  subject,"  etc.  (872,  873). 

to  admire.  . .  is  a  verb,  transitive,  regular,  in  the  present  infinitive, 
active,  governed  by  obliges. — Rule  XV.,  "  The  infinitive 
mood  is  governed,"  etc.  (865). 

and is  a  copulative  conjunction  ;  it  connects  to  admire 

and  to  adore. — Rule  XIX.,  "Conjunctions  connect," 
etc.  (944), 

to  adore is  the  same  in  parsing  and  construction  as  to  admire. 

the is  the  definite  article  ;  it  belongs  to  hand,  and 

shows  it  to  be  limited. — Rule  III.,  2,  "  The  article  the," 
etc.  (707). 

Omnipotent. .  is  an  adjective,  not  compared,  because  it  does  not 
admit  of  increase  (323).  It  qualifies  hand. — Rule  II.,  1, 
"  An  adjective  or  participle,"  etc.  (676). 

hand is  a  noun,  neuter,  in  the  objective  singular,  object  of  to 

admire  and  to  adore. — Rule  X.  (801). 

bj/ is  a  PREPOSITION  ;  it  shows  the  relation  between  which, 

the  subsequent  term  (538,  539),  and  was  created,  the 
antecedent  term.—"  A  preposition  is  a  word,"  etc.  (538). 

which is  a  relative  pronoun,  neuter,  in  the  objective  singu- 
lar ;  refers  to,  and  agrees  with,  haiid  as  its  antecedent. — 
Rule  V,  "  The  relative  agrees,"  etc.  (742),  and  is  the 
object  of  the  relation  expressed  by  the  preposition  by. — 
Rule  XL,  "A  substantive  being  the  object,'  etc.  (818). 
It  connects  its  clause  with  ha?id,  and  describes  it  (644, 
614,  5). 

it is  a  pronoun,  same  as  before;  is  the  subject  of  was 

created. — Rule  VI.,  "  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb,"  etc. 
(760). 

was  created. .  is  a  verb,  transitive,  regular,  in  the  past  indicative, 
passive,  third  person  singular ;  affirms  of,  and  agrees 
with  t^.— Rule  VIII.,  "  A  verb  agrees,"  etc  (776). 


266  ENGLISH     GEAMJMAR 

In  the  same  manner,  parse  tlie  otlier  sentences  analyzed  (G59)  ;  and 
analyze  and  parse  the  exercises  following  them  (page  143),  and  any 
correct  sentences  from  any  good  author. 

Promiscuous  Exercises 

ON  THE  RULES  OF   SYNTAX,  ETC. 

1^*  In  the  preceding  "  Exercises  to  be  Corrected,'"  care  has  been 
taken  to  insert  such  examples  only  as  can  be  corrected  by  the  rule,  or 
the  observations  under  which  they  are  placed,  or  by  those  which 
precede  them.  In  the  following  "  Promiscuous  Exercises,"  no  par- 
ticular arrangement  is  observed.  Every  sentence  contains  one  error, 
many  of  them  two,  and  some  of  them  three  or  more.  Many  of  the 
errors,  too,  are  such  as  are  often  made,  and,  on  account  of  our  familiar- 
ity with  them,  are  not  so  readily  noticed.  For  example,  nobody 
would  say,  "  Him  writes."  Some,  perhaps,  might  say,  "  Here  is  the 
man  whom  everybody  says  is  the  writer  of  that  letter ;"  and  yet  the 
error  in  both  is  the  same,  and  violates  Rule  VI.  In  all  these  exam- 
ples for  correction,  the  object  aimed  at  is  to  put  the  pupil  in  posses- 
sion of  the  idea  intended  to  be  expressed — and  the  exercise  for  him  is 
to  express  that  idea  grammatically,  in  the  best  manner.  There  can 
be  no  danger  of  imitating  an  expression  which  he  is  forewarned  is 
wrong  •,  while  it  will  exercise  his  judgment  to  detect  the  error,  test 
his  knowledge  of  grammar,  and  be  a  profitable  exercise  in  composi- 
tion to  put  the  sentence  right. 

All  these  exercises  may  first  be  corrected  orally — showing  wherein 
each  is  wrong,  and  why — correcting  the  error,  and  giving  a  reason 
for  the  change  made.  They  may  then  be  written  out  in  a  cor^ 
Tected  state.  After  that,  each  sentence  may  be  analyzed  as 
directed  (658),  and  then  parsed  syntactically  as  directed  (983). 

1. — 1.  Too  great  a  variety  of  studies  perplex  and  weaken  the  judg- 
ment.— 2.  I  called  to  see  you,  but  you  was  not  at  home. — 3.  To  act 
with  caution,  but  with  steadiness  and  vigor,  distinguish  the  manly 
character. — 4.  The  train  of  our  ideas  are  often  interrupted. — 5.  They 
were  both  unfortunate,  but  neither  of  them  were  to  blarne. 

3. — 1.  We  arrived  safely  at  our  journey's  end. — 2.  That  is  a  matter 
of  no  consequence  between  you  and  I. — 3.  This  should  not  happen 
between  such  friends  as  him  and  me. — 4.  Them  that  seek  knowledge 
will  find  it. — 5.  Such  are  the  men  whom,  we  might  suppose,  know 
better. — 6.  Our  welfare  and  security  consists  in  unity.  7. — All  the 
world  is  spectators  of  your  conduct. 


SYNTAX— PROMISCUO  us     EXERCISES.      267 

3. — 1.  Notliing,  is  more  lovelier  than  virtue. — 2.  His  associates  in 
wickedness  will  not  fail  to  mark  the  alteration  of  his  conduct, — 3.  He 
is  taller  than  me,  but  I  am  stronger  than  him. — 4.  Neither  riches  or 
beauty  furnish  solid  peace  and  contentment. — 5.  The  abuse  of  mercies 
ripen  us  for  judgments. — 6.  John,  William,  and  Henry's  hats  were 
stolen. — 7.  A  mans  manners  frequently  influence  his  fortune. — 8. 
Much  depends  on  this  rule  being  observed. — 9.  Such  will  ever  be  the 
efiect  of  youth  associating  with  vicious  companions. — 10.  Give  to 
every  one  their  due. 

4. — 1.  He  writes  tolerable  well. — 2.  Three  months'  notice  are  re- 
quired to  be  given  previous  to  a  pupil's  leaving  of  the  scliool. — 3. 
That  rose  smells  sweetly.— 4.  He  employed  another  friend  of  his 
father  to  assert  his  claim — [whoso  claim  ?] — 5.  A  soul  inspired  with 
the  love  of  truth  will  keep  all  his  jjowers  attentive  to  the  pursuit  of 
it. — 6.  It  is  the  duty  of  every  one  to  be  careful  of  their  reputation. — 7. 
It  is  remarkable,  his  continual  endeavors  to  serve  us. — 8.  This  mode 
of  expression  has  been  formerly  in  use. — 9.  He  promised  long  ago, 
that  he  had  attended  to  that  matter. — 10.  He  was  expected  to  have 
arrived  earlier. 

5. — 1.  Twice  three  are  six. — 2.  Five  are  the  half  of  ten. — 3.  Nine  are 
not  an  even  number. — 4.  One  man  and  one  boy  is  sufficient. — 5.  Two 
is  better  than  one. — 6.  Two  are  an  even  number — three  are  not. — 7. 
Three-fourths  are  more  than  one-half. — 8.  A  drove  of  forty  heads  of 
cattle  passed  along. 

6. — 1.  Molasses  are  thicker  than  water. — 2.  Wheat  is  being  sold  for. 
a  dollar  a  bushel,  and  oats  is  in  demand. — 3.  The  news  by  the  last 
arrival  is  better  than  wore  expected. — 4.  Do  you  not  think  ho  writes 
good  ? — 5  The  wind  blows  coldly  from  the  north,  and  the  snow  lies 
deeply  on  the  ground. — 6.  James  is  as  tall,  if  not  taller  than  I  am. 
— 7.  He  puts  down  the  mighty,  and  exalteth  the  humble. — 8.  Piety 
toward  God,  as  well  as  sobriety  and  virtue,  are  necessary  to  happi- 
ness. 

7. — 1.  Take  care  who  you  admit  into  friendship. — 2.  I  always  under- 
stood it  to  be  he,  whom  they  said  wrote  that  book. — 3.  If  I  was  him, 
I  would  take  more  care  for  the  future. — 4.  We  were  in  Havre  when 
the  revolution  broke  out  at  France. — 5,  I  have  been  to  Boston  for  a 
few  days,  and  spend  the  time  very  pleasant. — 6.  That  is  the  man  and 
the  horse  which  we  met  before. 

8. — 1.  This  excellent  person  was  fully  resigned  either  to  have 


268  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

lived  or  to  have  died. — 2.  Between  lie  and  I  there  is  some  disparity 
of  years,  but  none  between  he  and  she. — 3.  To  be  moderate  in  oui 
views,  and  proceeding  temperately  in  the  pursuit  of  them,  is  the  best 
Vvay  to  insure  success. — 4.  If  he  does  but  consider  the  subject,  he  will 
no  doubt  change  his  opinion. — 5.  Ignorance  is  the  mother  of  fear,  as 
well  as  admiration. — 6.  Let  him  be  whom  he  may,  I  can  not  wait 
for  him. 

9. — 1.  Many  have  profited  from  the  misfortunes  of  others. — 2. 
Many  ridiculous  customs  have  been  brought  in  use  during  the  hun- 
dred last  years. — 3.  Is  there  any  person  who  you  can  send  on  that 
business  ? — 4.  A  truth  is  virtue  to  which  we  should  pay  little  regard. 
. — 5.  The  people  of  the  United  States  enjoys  a  free  Constitution  and 
laws. — 6.  The  pyramids  of  Egypt  stood  more  than  three  thousand 
years. — 7.  It  is  thought  they  have  been  built  by  the  Egyptian  kings. 

10. — 1.  He  only  got  the  money  for  a  few  days. — 2.  He  was  mistaken 
evidently  in  his  calculations. — 3.  No  man  is  fit  for  free  conversation, 
for  the  inquiry  after  truth,  if  he  be  exceedingly  reserved ;  if  he  be 
haughty,  and  proud  of  his  knowledge  ;  if  he  be  positive  and  dogmar 
tical  in  his  opinions  ;  if  he  be  one  who  always  affects  to  outshine  all 
the  company  ;  if  he  be  fretful  and  peevish ;  if  he  affect  wit,  and  is  full 
of  puns,  or  quirks,  or  quibbles. — 4.  Humility  neither  seeks  the  last 
place,  or  the  last  word. — 5.  Either  wealth  or  power  may  ruin  their 
possessor. — 6.  Art  thou  the  man  who  hast  dared  to  insult  me  ? — 7. 
Oh  that  the  winter  was  gone ! 

11. — 1.  We  are  often  disappointed  of  things  which,  before  posses- 
sion, promised  much  enjoyment. — 2.  He  was  accused  with  acting  un- 
fairly, at  least  in  a  manner  illy  adapted  for  conciliating  regard. — 3. 
There  is  more  business  done  in  New  York  than  in  any  city  of  the 
United  States. — 4.  The  ship  Panama  is  early  expected  from  Canton 
in  the  spring. — 5.  Every  year,  every  day,  and  every  hour,  bring  their 
changes. 

12. — 1.  No  power  was  ever  yet  intrusted  to  man  without  a  liability 
to  abuse. — 2.  A  conceited  fool  is  more  abominable  than  all  fools. — 3. 
My  gravity  never  did  no  one  any  harm. — 4.  Expectation  and  reality 
makes  up  the  sum  total  of  life. — 5.  Music,  the  love  of  it,  and  the  prac- 
tice of  it,  seems  to  pervade  all  creation. — 6.  The  author  dreads  the 
critic,  the  miser  dreads  the  thief,  the  criminal  dreads  the  judge,  the 
horse  dreads  the  whip,  the  lamb  dreads  the  wolf— all  after  their  kind. 
— 7.  The  intellectual  and  moral  censor  both  have  the  same  ends  in 
view. 


SYNTAX  —  IMPROPER    E  X  P  RES  S  I  0  N  8< 


20O 


13, — 1  I  was  engaged  formerly  in  that  business,  but  I  never  ^liall 
be  again  concerned  in  it. — 3.  We  do  tbose  things  frequently  which 
we  repent  of  afterward.— 3.  That  picture  of  your  mother's  is  a  very 
exact  resemblance  of  her. — 4.  In  reference  to  that  transaction,  he  de- 
served punishment  as  much  or  more  than  his  companions. — 5.  Every 
one  of  those  pleasures  that  are  pursued  to  excess,  convert  themselves 
into  poison. — 6.  By  these  attainments  are  the  master  honored,  and  tho 
scholar  encouraged. — 7.  The  temple  consisted  of  one  great  and  seve- 
ral smaller  edifices. — 8.  Whether  he  will  be  learned  or  no,  depends  on 
his  application. 


A  lAst  of  Improper  Expressions, 


SELECTED  CHIEFLY  FROM  PICKEKING'S  VOCABULARY. 


Improper. 
The  alone  God.    The  alone  motive. 
I  an't;  you  an't ;  he  an't,  etc. 

Any  manner  o/ means. 

He  was  walking  hack  and  forth. 

His  argument  was  lased  on  this 

fact. 
The  money  was  ordered  paid. 
I  calculate  to  leave  town  soon. 
A  chunk  of  bread. 
A  clever  house. 
He  conditcts  well. 

He  is  considerable  of  a  scholar. 
His  farin  was  convenient  to  mine. 

He  is  a  decent  scholar,  writer. 
Her  situation  was  distressing  to  a 

degree. 
A  total  destitution  of  capacity. 
The  United   States,  or  either  of 

them. 
Equally  as  well ;  cw  good,  etc. 


Proper. 

The  one  God.    The  only  motiva 

I  am  not ;  you  are  not ;  he  is  not, 
etc. 

Any  means. 

backward  and  forward. 

His  argument  was  founded  on  this 
fact. 

The  money  was  ordered  to  be  paid. 

I  intend  to  leave  town  soon. 

A  piece  of  bread. 

A  good  house. 

He  conducts  himself  well,  respect- 
ably. 

He  is  a  pretty  good  scholar. 

His  farm  was  contiguous  to  mine, 
close. 

He  is  a  pretty  good  scholar,  writer. 

was  extremely  distressing. 

A  total  want  of  capacity. 

The  United  States,  or  any  of  thena. 

Equally  well,  or  just  as  well,  etc 


270 


EISTGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


Mr.  A- 


Improper. 
-B , 


-,  Esq. 
I  expect  he  must  have  died  long 

ago. 
These  things  are  in  a  bad  fix. 
Will  you  fix  these  things  for  me  ? 

What  do  folks  think  of  it  ? 
Talents  of  the  highest  grade. 
Do  you  love  play  ?     I  guess  I  do. 
We  may  Iiope  the  assistance  of 

God. 
A  horse  colt ;  a  ware  colt. 
It  would  illy  accord. 
When  did  you  come  in  town  ? 
A  lengthy  sermon,  etc. 
Why  don't  you  strike  like  I  do  ? 


B- 


Proper. 
-,  Esq. 


I  think  he  must  have  died,  etc 


in  a  bad  state  or  condition. 

Will  you  put  these  things  in  ordei 

for  me  ? 
What  do  people  think  of  it  ? 
Talents  of  the  highest  order. 

there  is  no  doubt  of  that. 

We  may  hope  for  the  assistance  of 

God. 
A  colt ;  a  filly. 
It  would  ill  accord. 
When  did  you  come  into  town  ? 
A  long  sermon,  etc. 
as  I  do,  or  like  as  I  do  ? 


PUNCTUATION. 

084:,    I*unctiiation    treats    of   tlie  points    and 

onarhs  used  in  writing. 

085,  The  use  of  these  points  is  to  mark  the  divisions  of  a 
sentence,  in  order  to  show  the  meaning  more  clearly,  and  to  serve 
as  a  guide  in  the  pauses  and  inflections  required  in  reading. 

080,  The  principal  marks  used  for  this  purpose  are  the  follow- 
ing: The  comma  (,),  the  semicolon  (;),  the  colon  (:),  the 
period  (.),  the  interrogation  point  (?),  the  exclatnation 
point  (!),  the  dash  (— ),  the  parenthesis  ( ),  the  brackets 
[]. 

0S7»  With  respect  to  the  length  of  the  pauses  indicated  by  these 
marks,  no  vei^y  definite  rule  can  be  given ;  the  same  point  in 
certain  kinds  of  composition,  and  in  certain  positions,  requiring  some- 
times a  longer  and  sometimes  a  shorter  pause. 

f}S8.  As  a  general  rule,  the  comma  marks  the  shortest  pause ;  the 
Bemicolon,  a  pause  double  that  of  the  comma ;  the  colon,  a  pause 


SYNTAA  —  PUN^CTUATIOIT.  271 

donble  that  of  the  semicolon ;  and  the  period,  a  pause  still  longer 
tlian  that  of  the  colon. 

The  Comma. 

,9^.9.  The  comma  is  generally  used  in  those  parts  of  a  sentence 
in  which  a  short  pause  is  required,  and  to  mark  a  connection  next  in 
clodeness  to  that  which  is  unbroken. 

Special  Rules, 

990,  Rule  1. — In  a  short ,  simple  sentence,  the  comma  is 
not  used  ;  as,  "  Hope  is  necessary  in  every  condition  of  life." 

991,  Rule  2. — When  the  logical  subject  of  a  verb  is  rendered 
long  by  the  addition  of  several  adjuncts,  or  other  qualifying  words, 
to  the  grammatical  subject,  a  comma  is  usually  inserted  before  the 
verb  ;  as,  "A  steady  and  undivided  attention  to  one  subject,  is  a  sure 
mark  of  a  superior  mind." 

,9,9;^.  Rule  3. — In  complex  and  compound  sentences,  the 
clauses  or  members  are  usually  separated  by  commas ;  as,  "  Crafty 
men  contemn  studies,  simple  men  admire  them,  and  wise  men  use 
them."  But  when  the  clauses  are  short,  or  closely  connected,  the 
comma  is  7iot  used  ;  as,  "  Revelation  tells  us  how  we  may  attain  hap- 
piness." 

993,  Rule  4. — Two  words  of  the  same  class,  connected  by  a 
conjunction  expressed,  do  not  admit  a  comma  between  them ;  as, 
"  The  earth  and  the  moon  are  planets." — "  He  is  a  vyise  and  prudent 
man." — "  He  catches  and  arrests  the  hours." — "  He  acts  prudently  and 
mgorously."  But  when  the  conjunction  is  not  expressed,  a  comma  is 
inserted  after  each  ;  as,  "Reason,  virtue,  answer  one  great  aim."  But, 
of  two  adjectives,  the  last  should  not  be  separated  by  a  comma  from 
its  noun  ;  as,  "  He  is  a  plain,  honest  man."  Nor  can  two  adjectives 
be  separated  from  each  other  by  a  comma  when  used  together  as  a 
compound  adjective  ;  as,  "  Kbright^ed  color." 

994,  Rule  5.—3Iore  than  two  tvords  of  the  same  class,  con- 
nected by  conjunctions  expressed  or  understood,  have  a  comma  after 
each  ;  as,  "  Poetry,  music,  and  painting,  are  fine  arts."  But  when 
the  words  connected  are  adjectives,  the  last  should  not  be  separated 
from  its  noun  by  a  comma  after  it ;  as,  "  David  was  a  loise,  hrave^  and 
prudent  king." 

995,  Rule  6.— Words  used  in  pairs  take  a  comma  after  each 
pair ;  as,  "  Anarchy  and  confusion,  poverty  and  distress,  desolation 
%nd  ruin,  are  the  consequences  of  civil  war." 


272  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

996,  Rule  7. — N'ouns  in  apposition  are  separated  by  u 
comma,  when  the  latter  noun  has  several  words  or  adjuncts  connected 
with  it ,  as,  "  Paul,  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles."  But  a  single  noun 
in  apposition  with  another  is  not  separated  by  a  comma ;  as,  "  Paul 
the  apostle." 

997,  Rule  8. — The  nominative  independent,  and  the 
nominative  absolute  (768),  with  the  words  dependent  on  them,  are 
separated  by  commas  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence ;  as,  "  My  son, 
hear  the  instruction  of  thy  father." — "  I  am,  sir,  your  obedient  ser- 
vant."— "  The  time  of  youth  being  precious,  we  should  devote  it  to 
improvement." — "  To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  in  fault." 

998,  Rule  9. — Com2>arative  and  antithetical  clauses  sxe 

separated  by  a  comma  ;  thus,  "  As  the  hart  panteth  after  the  water- 
brooks,  so  doth  my  soul  pant  after  thee," — "  Though  deep,  yet  clear  ; 
though  gentle,  yet  not  dull."  But  when  the  comparison  is  short,  and 
the  connection  intimate,  the  comma  is  not  used ;  as,  "  Wisdom  is 
better  than  rubies." 

999,  Rule  10. — Tlie  adverbs  naj/f  so,  hence,  again,  first, 
secondly,  etc.,  when  considered  important,  and  particularly  at  the 
beginning  of  a  sentence,  should  be  separated  from  the  context  by  a 
comma  ■,  as,  "  Nay,  but  we  will  serve  the  Lord."  So  also,  as  and 
thus,  introducing  an  example  or  quotation,  as  in  the  preceding 
sentence. 

1000,  Rule  11. — A  relative  with  its  clause,  explanatory  of 
its  antecedent,  is  usually  separated  from  the  rest  of  a  sentence ;  as, 
"  He,  who  disregards  the  good  opinion  of  the  world,  must  be  utterly 
abandoned,"  or,  "  He  must  be  utterly  abandoned,  who  disregards," 
etc.  But  when  the  relative,  with  its  clause,  is  restrictive  (367,  2),  and 
the  connection  so  close  that  it  can  not  be  separated,  the  comma  is  not 
used  ;  as,  "  Self-denial  is  the  sacrifice  which  virtue  must  make." 

1001,  Rule  12. — That,  used  as  a  conjunction,  and  preceded  by 
another  clause,  usually  has  a  comma  before  it ;  as,  "  Be  virtuous,  that 
you  may  be  happy."  But  when  the  clause  introduced  by  that  is  the 
subject  or  the  object  of  the  verb  in  the  preceding  clause,  the  comma 
is  not  inserted  ;  as,  "  It  is  well  tJiat  he  should  know  it." — "  I  said  that 
ye  are  gods." 

1002,  Rule  13. — When  a  ver^b  is  understood ^  a  comma  must 
be  inserted  ;  as,  "  Reading  makes  a  full  man  ;  conversation,  a  readj 
man ;  and  writing,  an  exact  man." 


SYKTAX  —  PUi?^CTUATIO:N".  273 

1003.  Rule  14. —  Words  repeated  are  separated  by  a  comma; 
as,  "  Holy,  holy,  holy,  is  the  Lord  God  Almighty." — "  No,  no,  no,  it 
can  not  be." 

1004,  Rule  15. — Inverted  sentences,  by  throwing  two  or 
more  words  out  of  their  regular  connection,  often  require  a  comma ; 
as,  "  To  God,  all  things  are  possible."  Not  inverted,  it  would  be, 
"AH  things  are  possible  to  God." — "  His  delight  was,  to  assist  the 
distressed.  In  the  natural  order,  "  To  assist  the  distressed  was  his 
delight." 

1€05.  Rule  16. — A  short  expression,  in  the  matter  of  a 
quotation,  is  separated  by  commas ;  as,  "  Plutarch  calls  lying,  the 
vice  of  slaves."  Also  the  verbs  say,  re-ply,  and  the  like,  with  their 
dependent  words  introducing  a  quotation  or  remark,  are  usually 
separated  by  commas ;  as,  "  The  book  of  nature,  &aid  he,  is  open 
before  thee." — "I  say  imto  all,  watch." 

1006.  Rule  17. — Adjectives,  particijtles,  adverbs,  ifi- 
finitives,  etc.,  when  separated  from  the  word  on  which  they  depend, 
or,  when  accompanied  by  several  adjuncts,  commonly  require  commas 
to  be  inserted ;  as,  "  His  talents,  formed  for  great  enterprises,  could 
not  faU  of  rendering  him  conspicuous." — "  To  conclude,  I  can  only 
say  this." — "  We  must  not,  however,  neglect  our  duty." 

The  Semicolon. 

1007.  Tlie  semicolon  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  sentence 
which  are  less  closely  cofinected  than  those  which  are  separated 
by  the  comma,  and  more  closely  than  those  which  are  separated  by 
the  colon. 

General  Mule, 

1008.  The  parts  of  a  sentence  separated  by  a  semicolon,  should 
contain  in  themselves  a  complete  and  independent  pro2)OSi~ 
tion,  but  still  having  a  connection  with  the  other  parts. 

Special  Rules, 

1009.  Rule  1. — When  the  first  division  of  a  sentence  contains  a 
complete  proposition,  but  is  followed  by  a  clause  added  as  an  infe- 
rence  or  reason,  or  to  give  some  explanation,  the  part  thus  added 
must  be  separated  by  a  semicolon  ;  as,  "  Perform  your  duty  faithfully  ; 
lor  this  will  procure  you  the  blessing  of  heaven." — "The  orator 
makes  the  truth  plain  to  his  hearers  ;  he  awakens  them ;  he  excites 


274  EITGLISH    GRAMMA  E. 

j 

tliem  to  action  ;  he  shows  them  their  impending  danger." — "  Be  at  ' 
peace  with  many ;  nevertheless,  have  but  few  counselors."  \ 

1010,  Rule  2. — When  several  short  sentences,  complete  j 
in  themselves,  but  having  a  slight  connection  in  idea,  follow  in  sue-  j 
cession,  they  should  be  separated  by  a  semicolon  ;  as,  "  The  epic  poem  i 
recites  the  exploits  of  a  hero  ;  tragedy  represents  a  disastrous  event :  i 
comedy  ridicules  the  vices  and  follies  of  mankind ;  pastoral  poetry  ' 
describes  rural  life ;  and  elegy  displays  the  tender  emotions  of  the  \ 
heart."  , 

1011,  Rule  3. — When  a  sentence  consists  of  several  mem-  , 
hers,  and  these  members  are  compleoc,  and  subdivided  by  commas,  j 
the  larger  divisions  of  the  sentence  are  sometimes  separated  by  a  S 
semicolon ;  as,  "  As  the  desire  of  approbation,  when  it  works  according  i 
to  reason,  improves  the  amiable  part  of  our  species  in  everytliing  that  I 
is  laudable  ;  so  nothing  is  more  destructive  to  them,  when  it  is  go-  i 
verned  by  vanity  and  folly." 

1012,  Rule  4. — When  a  general  term  has  several  others,  as  par-  ; 
ticulars,  in  apposition  under  it,  the  general  term  is  separated  from  .| 
the  particulars  by  a  semicolon,  and  the  particulars,  from  each  other  ; 
by  commas;  as,  "Adjective  pronouns  are  divided  into  four  classes;  \ 
possessive,  distributive,  demonstrative,  and  indefinite."     But  if  the  \ 

word  namely  be  introduced,  the  separation  is  made  by  a  comma  only.  ■ 

i 

The  Colon.  ; 

1 013,  The  colon  is  used  to  divide  a  sentence  into  two  or  more  ; 
parts,  less  connected  than  those  which  are  separated  by  a  semicolon,  ' 
but  not  so  independent  as  to  require  a  period. 

Special  Mules,  \ 

1014,  Rule  1. — ^A  colon  is  used  when  a  sentence  is  complete  \ 

in  itself,  in  both  sense  and  construction,  but  is  followed  by  some  ; 
additional  remark  or  illustration,  depending  upon  it  in  sense,  though  i 
not  in  Syntax  ;  as,  "  The  brute  arrives  at  a  point  of  perfection  that  he  1 
can  never  pass  :  in  a  few  years  he  has  all  the  endowments  of  which  j 
he  is  capable." — "  Study  to  acquire  a  habit  of  thinking  :  nothing  is  i 
more  important."  \ 

1015,  Rule  2. — When  several  short  sentences  follow  in  sue-  I 
cession,  each  containing  a  complete  sense  in  itself,  but  all  having  a  ; 
common  dependence  on  some  subsequent  clause;  these  sen-  ; 
tences  are  separated  from  the  subsequent  clause  by  a  colon,  and  from  i 
each  other  by  a  semicolon  ;  as,  "  That  Nature  is  unlimited  in  her  ! 


SYNTAX  —  PUNCTUATION-,  2l5 

operations  ;  tliat  she  has  inexhaustible  resources  in  reserve ;  that 
knowledge  will  always  be  progressive  ;  and  that  all  future  genera' 
tions  will  continue  to  make  discoveries :  these  are  among  the  asser* 
tions  of  pldlosophers." 

1016,  Rule  3. — A  colon  (sometimes  a  semicolon)  may  be  used 
when  an  example,  a  quotation^  or  a  speech  is  introduced  ;  as, 
"  Always  remember  this  ancient  maxim  :  *  Know  thyself.'  " — "  The 
Scriptures  give  us  an  animated  representation  of  the  Deity  in  these 
words :  *  God  is  love.' " 

1017'  Rule  4. — The  insertion  or  omission  of  a  conjunction 
bafore  the  concluding  member  of  a  sentence  frequently  determines 
the  usa  of  the  colon  or  semicolon.  When  the  conjunction  is  not 
expressed  before  the  concluding  niemher^  which  would 
otherwise  be  separated  by  a  semicolon,  the  colon  is  used ;  but  when  the 
conjunction  is  expressed,  the  semicolon;  as,  "Apply  yourself  to 
learning :  it  will  redound  to  your  honor." — "  Apply  yourself  to  learn- 
ing ;  for  it  will  redound  to  your  honor." 

The  Period. 

1018,  The  period  separates  sentences  which  are  complete 

in  sensCf  and  not  connected  in  either  meaning  or  grammatical  con- 
struction ;  thus,  "  Fear  God.  Honor  the  king.  Have  charity  toward 
all  men." 

1019,  But  when  short  sentences  are  connected  in  mean" 
ing,  but  not  in  construction,  they  are  separated  by  a  semicolon 
(1010). 

1020,  Long  sentenceSf  if  complete,  even  though  grammat- 
ically connected  by  conjunctions,  often  insert  a  period  (563);  thus, 
*•  He  who  lifts  up  himself  to  the  notice  and  observation  of  the  world, 
is,  of  all  men,  the  least  likely  to  avoid  censure.  For  he  draws  upon 
himself  a  thousand  eyes  that  will  narrowly  inspect  him  in  every  part." 

1021,  A  period  must  be  used  at  the  end  of  all  books,  chap- 
ters, sections,  etc. ;  also,  after  all  abbreviations ;  as,  A.  D., 
M.  A.,  Art.  II.,  Obs.  3.,  J.  Smith,  etc. — Appendix,  XII. 

The  Interrogation  Point. 

1022,  A  question  is  regarded  as  a  complete  sentence,  and 

the  interrogation  point  as  equal  to  the  period. 

1023,  The  note  of  interrogation  is  always  put  at  the  end  of 
a  direct  question  ;  as,  "  What  is  truth  ?"  But  the  indirect  ques- 
tion does  not  require  the  interrogation  point ;  as,  "  Pilate  inquired 
what  is  truth." 


^76  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Note. — ^Printers  are  generally  tlie  best  punctuators,  as  they  follow 
a  uniform  system.  It  is  therefore  for  the  most  part  best,  in  prepar- 
ing matter  for  the  press,  to  leave  this  matter  to  them,  except  where 
the  meaning  intended  may  not  be  clearly  perceived  without  the 
punctuation. 

Other  Characters  Used  in  Writing. 

1024,  The  JDash{ — )  is  used  where  the  sentence  breaks  off 
ahvuptly  ;  also,  to  denote  a  significant  pause — an  unexpected  turn 
in  the  sentiment — or  that  the  first  clause  is  common  to  all  the  rest,  as 
in  this  definition. 

1025,  The  note  of  eocclamation  (!)  is  used  after  expres- 
sions of  sudden  etnotion  of  any  kind ;  also,  in  invocations  or  ad- 
dresses, as,  "  Eternity !  thou  pleasing,  dreadful  thought."  Oh  has 
the  mark  immediately  after  it,  or  after  the  next  word ;  as,  "  Oh !  that 
he  would  come."  But  when  O  is  used,  the  note  is  placed  after  some 
intervening  words  ;  as,  "  0  my  friends !" 

1026,  The  Parenthesis  ( )  includes  a  clause  inserted  in  the 
body  of  a  sentence,  in  order  to  some  useful  or  necessary  informa- 
tion or  remark,  but  which  may  be  omitted  without  injuring  the  con- 
struction of  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  Know  ye  not,  brethren  (for  I  speak  to 
them  that  know  the  law),  how  that  the  law  hath  dominion  over  a 
man  as  long  as  he  liveth  ?"  In  reading,  the  parenthetic  part  is  distin- 
guished by  a  lower  or  altered  tone  of  voice.  When  the  clause  is 
shorts,  and  accords  with  the  general  tenor  of  the  sentence,  coni^nas 
are  now  generally  used  instead  of  parentheses  ;  as, 

,  "  Thou  sluggish  power,  if  power  thou  he, 

All  destitute  of  energy." 

The  use  of  parentheses  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. 

1027*  JSrackets  [  ]  are  properly  used  to  enclose  a  word  or 
phrase  interjwlated  for  the  purpose  of  explanation,  or  correction, 
or  to  supply  a  deficiency  in  a  sentence  quoted  or  regarded  as  such,  and 
which  did  not  belong  to  thf.  original  composition  ;  thus," "  It  is  said, 
the  wisest  men  [and,  it  might  be  added,  the  best  too]  are  not  exempt 
from  human  frailty." 

102 S.  The  Apostrophe  {')  is  used  when  a  letter  or  letters 
are  oynitted  ;  as  e'er  for  etier,  tho'  for  though  ;  or  to  mark  the  pos- 
sessive case. 

1029,  Quotation  marks  ("  ")  are  put  at  the  beginning  and  end 


SYNTAX  —  PUNCTUATIOlir.  277 

of  a  passage  quoted  from  an  author  in  his  own  words,  or  to  mark  a 
passage  regarded  as  a  quotation. 

1030.  The  Hyphen  (-)  is  ^ised  to  connect  compound 
words  which  are  not  permanent  compounds,  as  lap-dog  :  also  at  the 
end  of  a  line,  to  show  that  the  rest  of  the  word  not  completed  is  at 
the  beginning  of  the  next  line. 

1031.  The  Section  ( § )  is  used  to  divide  a  discourse  or  chapter 
into  portions. 

1032.  The  Paragraph  (1)  was  formerly  used  to  denote  the 
beginning  of  a  new  paragraph. 

1033.  The  Brace  (.--j^— )  is  used  to  connect  words  which  have 
(yne  common  ternif  or  three  lines  in  poetry  having  the  same 
rhyme,  called  a  triplet. 

1034.  The  Ellipsis  ( )  is  used  when  some  letters  are 

omitted  ;  as,  K—g  for  King.    Several  asterisks  are  sometimes  used 
for  the  same  purpose  ;  as,  ^*  *^. 

1035.  The  Caret  (a)  is  ^is^d  to  show  that  some  word  or  lettei 
is  either  otnitted  or  interlined.    It  is  used  only  in  manuscript. 

1036.  The  Index  (  B^" )  is  used  to  point  out  any  thing  remark- 
able. 

1037.  The  vowel  marks  are:  the  jyimresis  (  '*  ),  on  the 
last  of  two  concurrent  vowels,  showing  that  tliey  are  not  to  be  pro- 
nounced as  a  diphthong  ;  the  Acute  accent  ( '  )  ;  the  Grave  ( ^) ; 
the  Long  sound  (  "  )  ;  the  Shm^t  sound  ( *' ). 

1038.  The  marks  of  reference  are :  the  Asterisk  ( * ) ;  the 
Obelisk  or  JOagger  ( f ) ;  the  Double  Dagger  (| ) ;  the  JPa- 
rallels  ( |  )•  Sometimes,  also,  the  §  and  1[.  Also,  small  letters  or 
figures,  which  refer  to  notes  at  the  foot  of  the  page. 


FIGURES. 


1089.  A  Figure,  in  grammar,  is  some  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  form,  or  construction,  or  application  of 
words  in  a  sentence,  for  the  purpose  of  greater  precision, 
variety,  or  elegance  of  expression. 

1040.  There  are  three  kinds  of  Figures,  viz. :  of  Etymology^ 
of  Syntax^  and  of  RJietork.    The  first  refers  to  the  form  of  words. 


278  EliGLISn     GEAMMAR. 

tlie  second  to  their  construction^  and  the  last  to  their  applica-' 
lion. 

Figures  of  Etymology, 

10411  A  Fi^re  of  Etymology  is  a  departure  from  the  usual 
or  simple  form  of  words ^  merely. 

104:2,  Of  these,  the  most  important  are  eight,  viz.  :  A-phcer'-e-sis, 
Pro^-the-sis,  Syn'-co-pe,  A-poc'-o-pe,  Par-a-go'-ge,  Di-cer'-esis,  Syn-cBr'-e- 
sis,  and  Tme'-sis. 

1.  Aphceresis  is  the  elision  of  a  syllable  from  the  beginning 
of  a  word ;  as,  'gainst,  'gan,  'hove,  'neatli,  for  against,  hegan,  above, 
beneath. 

2.  Prosthesis  is  the  prefixing  of  a  syllable  to  a  word;  as, 
adown,  agoing,  etc.,  for  dozen,  going,  etc. 

3.  Syncope  is  the  elision  of  a  letter  or  syllable,  usually  a  short 
one,  from  the  middle  of  a  word ;  as,  med'cine,  sp'rit,  e'en,  for  medi- 
cine, spirit,  even. 

4.  Apocope  is  the  elision  of  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  end  of  a 
Word  ;  as,  tho'  for  though,  ih'  for  the. 

5.  JParagoge  is  the  annexing  of  a  syllable  to  the  end  of  a 
word ;  as,  deary  for  dear. 

6.  Diceresis  is  the  division  of  two  concurrent  vowels  into  dif- 
ferent syllables,  usually  marked  thus  (  "  )  on  the  second  vowel ;  as, 
cooperate,  aerial. 

7.  Synmresis  is  the  joining  of  two  syllables  into  one,  in  either 
orthography  or  pronunciation  ;  as,  dost,  seest,  for  doest,  se'est,  or  loved 
learned,  pronounced  in  one  syllable  instead  of  two,  lov-ed,  learn-ed. 

8.  Tmesis  is  the  separating  of  the  parts  of  a  compound  word  by 
an  intervening  term  ;  as,  "  What  time  soever." — "  On  which  side 
w&oer." — "  To  us  ward." 

Figures  of  Syntax, 

1043.  A  figure  of  Syntax  is  a  deviation  from  the  usual  con- 
struction of  words  in  a  sentence,  used  for  the  sake  of  greater  beauty 
or  force. 

1044,  Of  these  the  most  important  are :  El-lip' -sis,  Plef-o-nasm, 
Syl-lep'-sis,  E-nal'-la-ge,  Hy^er'^Or-ton. 

1.  Ellipsis  is  the  oinission  of  a  word  or  words  necessary  to  the 
full  construction  of  a  sentence,  but  not  necessary  to  convey  the  idei 


SYN^TAX  —  FIGURES.  279 

Intended  (977).  Such  words  are  said  to  be  understood;  as,  "  Tha 
men,  women,  and  children,"  for  "  The  men,  the  women,  and  t?ie 
children." 

2.  Pleonasm  is  the  using  of  inore  words  than  are  ne- 
cessary  to  the  full  construction  of  a  sentence,  to  give  greater  force 
or  emphasis  to  the  exj  session ;  as,  "  The  hoy,  oh !  where  was  Jie  !" 

3.  Syllepsis  is  an  inferior  species  of  personificatiorif  by 
which  we  conceive  the  sense  of  words  otherwise  than  the  words  im- 
port, and  construe  them  according  to  the  sense  conceived.  Thus,  of 
the  sun,  we  say,  "  He  shines  " — of  a  ship,  "  S7ie  sails  "  (130). 

4.  Enallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech  for  an- 
other^ or  of  one  modification  of  a  word  for  another ;  as,  an  adjective 
for  an  adverb,  thus,  "  They  fall  successive,  and  successive  rise,"  for  suc- 
cessively;  the  use  of  we  and  you  in  the  plural,  to  denote  an  individual, 
etc.  (245) ;  the  use  of  one  case  for  another  ;  as,  "  than  wTwm  "  for  than 
who  (966). 

5.  Hyperbaton  is  the  transposition  of  words  and  clauses  in 
a  sentence,  to  give  variety,  force,  and  vivacity,  to  the  composition  ;  as, 
"  Now  come  we  to  the  last," — "  A  man  he  was  to  all  the  country  dear." 
— "  He  wanders  earth  around." 

Figures  of  Rhetoric, 

104:5,  A  Figure  of  Rhetoric  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary 
ajyplication  of  words  in  speech,  to  give  animation,  strength,  and 
beauty,  to  the  composition.  These  figures  are  sometimes  called 
tropes, 

1046,  Of  these,  the  most  important  are  the  following,  viz. : — 

Personification,  Hyperbole,  Climax, 

Simile,  Irony,  ^  Exdamation, 

Metaphor,  Metonymy,  Interrogation, 

Allegory,  Synecdoche,  Fa/ralepsis, 

Vision,  '^Antithesis,  Apostrophe. 

1.  Personification  or  prosopopeeia^is  that  figure  of  speech 
by  which  we  attribute  life  and  action  to  inanimate  objects ;  as,  "  The 
sea  saw  it  and  fled." 

2.  A  simile  expresses  the  resemblance  that  one  object  bears 
to  another ;  as,  "  He  shall  be  like  a  tree  planted  by  th^  mvers  of 
water." 


558U  ENGLISH    GKAMMAR. 

3.  A  metaphor  is  a  simile  without  the  sign  {like,  or  as,  etc ,] 
of  comparison  ;  as,  "  Re  shall  be  a  tree  planted  ly,"  etc. 

4.  An  allegory  is  a  continuation  of  several  metaphors,  so  con- 
nected in  sense  as  to  form  a  kind  of  parable  or  fable.  Thus,  the 
people  of  Israel  are  represented  under  the  image  of  a  vine :  "  Thou 
hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt,"  etc. — Ps.  Ixxx.  8-17.  Of  this  style 
are  -^sop's  Fables,  Bunyan's  "  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  etc. 

5.  Vision  or  imagery ,  is  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker  repre- 
sents past  events  or  the  objects  of  his  imagination,  as  actually 
present  to  his  senses ;  as,  "  Csesar  leaves  Gaul,  crosses  the  Rubicon, 
and  enters  Italy." — "  The  combat  deepens.    On,  ye  brave,"  etc. 

6.  An  hyperbole  is  a  figure  that  represents  things  as  greater 
or  less,  better  or  worse,  than  they  really  are.  Thus,  David  says 
of  Saul  and  Jonathan,  "  They  were  swifter  than  eagles;  they  were 
stronger  than  lions." 

6.  Irony  is  a  figare  by  which  we  mean  quite  the  contrary  of 
what  we  say  ;  as,  when  Elijah  said  to  the  worshipers  of  Baal,  *  Cry 
aloud  ;  for  he  is  a  god,  etc. 

7.  MetonyTny  is  a  figure  by  which  we  put  the  cause  for  the 
effect,  or  the  effect  for  the  cause;  as,  when  we  say,  "He  reads 
Milton,"  we  mean  Milton's  works.  "  Gray  hairs  should  be  respected  " 
— that  is,  old  age. 

9.  Synecdoche  is  the  putting  of  a  paj^t  for  the  whole,  or  the 
whole  for  apart,  a  definite  number  for  an  indefinite,  etc.;  as,  the 
waves  for  the  sea,  the  head  for  the  person,  and  ten  thousand  for  any 
great  number.    This  figure  is  nearly  allied  to  metonymy. 

10.  Antithesis,  or  contrast,  is  a  figure  by  which  difierent  or  con- 
trary objects  are  contrasted,  to  make  them  show  one  another  to  advan- 
tage. Thus,  Solomon  contrasts  the  timidity  of  the  wicked  with  the 
courage  of  the  righteous,  when  he  says,  "  The  wicked  flee  when  no  man 
pursueth  ;  but  the  righteous  are  as  bold  as  a  lion." 

11.  C/imacc,  or  amplification,  is  the  hightening  of  all  the  cir- 
cumstances of  an  object  or  action  which  we  wish  to  place  in  a  strong 
light ;  as,  "  Who  shall  separate  us  from  the  love  of  Christ  ?  Shall 
tribulation,  or  distress,  or  persecution,  or  famine,  or  nukedness,  or  peril, 
or  sword  ?    Nay,"  etc.    See,  also,  Rom.  viii.  38,  39. 

12.  Exclamatio7i  is  a  figure  that  is  used  to  express  some 
strong  ^motion  of  the  mind ;  as,  "  Oh/  the  depth  of  the  riches, 
both  of  the  vnsdom  and  knowledge  of  God  !" 


POETIC    LICENSES.  28X 

13.  Interrogation  is  a  figure  by  which  we  express  the  emotion 
of  our  mind,  and  enliven  our  discourse  hy  pro2}osing  questions  ; 
thus,  ''Hath  the  Lord  said  it?  and  shall  lie  7iot  do  it?  Hath  he 
spoken  it  ?  and  sJiaU  he  not  make  it  good  ?" 

14.  Paralepsis,  or  omission,  is  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker 
pretends  to  conceal  what  he  is  really  declaring,  and  strongly 
enforcing ;  as,  "  Horatius  was  once  a  very  promising  young  gentle 
men,  but  in  process  of  time  he  became  so  addicted  to  gaming,  not  to 
mention  his  drunkenness  and  debauchery,  that  he  soon  exhausted  his 
estate,  and  ruined  his  constitution." 

15.  Apostrophe  is  a  turning-oflf  from  the  subject,  to  address 
some  other  person  or  thing  ;  "  Death  is  swallowed  up  in  oictory.  0 
Death,  where  is  thy  sting  ?" 

104:7*  Besides  the  deviations  from  the  usual  form  and  construc- 
tion of  words,  noted  under  the  figures  of  Etymology  and  Syntax, 
there  are  still  others,  which  can  not  be  classed  under  proper  heads, 
and  which,  from  being  used  mostly  in  poetic  composition,  are  com- 
monly called — 

Poetic  Licenses, 
1048,  These  are  such  as  the  following  : — 

1.  In  poetry,  words,  idioms,  and  phrases  are  often  used,  which 
would  be  inadtnissible  in  prose  ;  as — , 

"  A  man  he  was  to  all  the  country  dear. 

And  passing  rich  with  forty  pounds  a  year." 
'*  By  fountain  clear,  or  spangled  starlight  sheen." 
**  Shall  I  receive  by  gift,  what  of  my  own. 

When  and  where  likes  me  best,  I  can  command," 
"  Thy  voice  we  hear,  and  thy  behests  obey." 
"  The  whiles,  the  vaulted  shrine  around. 

Seraphic  wires  were  heard  to  sound." 
"  On  the  first  friendly  bank  he  throws  him  down.** 
"  111  seek  the  solitude  he  sought. 

And  stretch  me  where  he  lay." 
"  Not  Hector's  self  should  want  an  equal  foe." 
2.  More  violent  and  peculiar  ellipses  are  allowable  in  poetry 
than  in  prose  ;  as — 

"  Su:^e,  to-night,  these  orders  to  obey." 
TirM  is  our  tedious  song  should  here  have  ending." 


28^                          EI^GLISHGRAMMAR.  < 

*'  For  is  there  aught  in  sleep  can  cliarm  the  wise  V  \ 

**  *T  is  Fancy,  in  her  fiery  car,  i 

Transports  me  to  the  thickest  war."  ^ 

"  Who  never  fasts,  no  banquet  e'er  enjoys.**  ; 

"Bliss  is  the  same  in  subject  as  in  king,  : 

In  who  obtain  defense,  or  who  defend."  ! 

3.  In  poetry,  adjectives  are  often  elegantly  connected  with  nouns  i 
which  they  do  not  strictly  qualify  ;  as — 

"  The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way."  '] 

"  The  tenants  of  the  warbling  shade."  ; 

"  And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant /(5?(f5."  : 

4.  The  rules  of  grainmar  are  often  violated  by  the  poets.    A  : 
noun  and  its  pronoun  are  often  used  in  reference  to  the  same  verb ;  as — 

"  It  ceased,  the  melancholy  sound."  \ 
"  My  hanks  they  are  furnished  with  bees." 

5.  An  adverb  is  often  admitted  between  the  verb  and  to,  ■ 

the  sign  of  the  infinitive ;  as —  i 

"  To  sit  on  rocks,  to  muse  o'er  flood  and  fell ;  i 

To  slowly  trace  the  forest's  shady  scenes."  \ 

6.  A  common  poetic  license  consists  in  employing  or  and  noVf 
instead  of  either  and  neither  ;  as —  j 

*- "  And  first 

Or  on  the  listed  plain,  or  stormy  sea."  j 

"  Nor  grief  nor  fear  shall  break  my  rest."  1 

7.  Intransitive  verbs  are  often  made  transitive,  and  adjeo-  i 
lives  are  used  like  abstract  nouns  ;  as —  1 

"  The  lightnings  jiash  a  larger  curve."  \ 

"  Still  in  harmonious  intercourse,  they  lined  \ 

The  rural  day,  and  talked  the  flowing  heart."  \ 

**  Meanwhile,  whate'er  of  beautiful  or  new,  \ 

By  chance  or  search,  was  offered  to  his  view,  \ 

He  scanned  with  curious  eye."  ; 

8.  Greekf  Latin,  and  other  foreign  idioms,  are  alloivable  in 
poetry,  though  inadmissible  in  prose  ;  as —  i 

**  He  knew  to  sing,  and  huHd  the  lofty  rhyme."  \ 

"  Grive  me  to  seize  rich  Nestor's  shield  of  gold."  j 

i 


SYNTAX  —  POETIC    LICENSES.  283 

"  There  are,  who,  deaf  to  mad  ambition's  call, 

Would  shrink  to  hear  the  obstreperous  trimip  of  fame." 
"  Yet  to  their  general's  voice  they  all  obeyed/' 

"  Never,  since  created  man, 

Met  such  embodied  force." 
1049,  Such  are  a  few  of  the  licenses  allowed  to  poets,  but  denied 
to  prose  writers ;  and,  among  other  purposes  which  they  obviously 
serve,  they  enhance  the  pleasure  of  reading  poetic  composition,  by 
increasing  the  boundary  of  separation  set  up,  especially  in  our  lan- 
guage, between  it  and  common  prose. 

EXERCISES. 

Point  out,  name,  and  define,  the  figures  of  Etymology  in  the  follow- 
ing phrases  and  sentences  : — 

His  courage  'gan  fail. — Bend  'gainst  the  steepy  liill  thy  breast. — 
'Twas  mine,  'tis  his. — Vain  tamp'ring  has  but  fostered  his  disease. — 
Enchained  he  lay,  a  monster. — What  way  soe'er  he  turned,  it  met 
him. — Th'  aerial  pencil  forms  the  scene  anew. 

Point  out,  name,  and  define,  the  figures  of  Syntax  in  the  following 
sentences : — 

The  law  I  gave  to  nature  him  forbids. — So  little  mercy  shows  who 
needs  so  much. — My  head  is  filled  with  dew,  and  my  locks  with  the 
drops  of  the  night. — Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field,  how  they  grow. — 
He  that  glorieth,  let  him  glory  in  the  Lord. 

Point  out,  name,  and  define,  the  figures  of  Rhetoric  in  the  following 
sentences : — 

As  thy  day  is,  so  shall  thy  strength  be. — Without  discipline,  the 
favorite,  like  a  neglected  forester,  runs  wild. — Thy  name  is  as  oint- 
ment poured  forth. — The  Lord  God  is  a  sun  and  shield. — I  saw  their 
chief,  tall  as  a  rock  of  ice,  his  spear  the  blasted  fir. — At  which  the 
univergal  host  sent  up  a  shout  that  tore  hell's  concave. 


PART   IV. 

PROSODY 


1050.  JProsody  treats  of  Elocution  and  Yersijl 
cation, 

ELOCUTION. 

1051,  Elocution  is  correct  pronunciation^ 
and  the  proper  management  of  the  voice  in 
reading  or  speaking. 

In  order  to  read  and  speak  with  grace  and  eflPect,  attention  must  be 
paid  to  correct  enunciation,  the  proper  j)itch  of  the  voice,  the 
accent  and  quantity  of  the  syllables,  and  to  emphasis ,  pauses, 
and  tones. 

1052, — 1.  The  enunciation  should  be  distinct  and  clear  upon 
every  letter  and  syllable,  giving  to  each  element  its  proper  sound. 

1053, — 2.  In  the  2>ii^67i  and  management  of  the  voice,  it  should 
be  neither  too  high  nor  too  low  ;  the  utterance  neither  too  quick  nor 
too  slow,  and  neither  too  varied  nor  too  monotonous. 

1034:, — 3.  A.ccent  is  the  laying  of  a  particular  stress  of  voice  on 
a  certain  syllable  in  a  word,  as  the  syllable  vir-  in  vir'  tue,  vir'  tuous. 

1053, — 4.  The  quantity  of  a  syllable  is  the  relative  time  which 
is  required  to  pronounce  it.  A  long  syllable,  in  quantity,  is  equal  to 
two  short  ones.  Thus,  pine,  tube,  note,  require  to  be  sounded  as  long 
again  as  piii,  tuh,  not.  In  English  versification,  an  accented  sylla- 
ble is  long,  an  unaccented  one  is  short, 

1056, — 5.  Emphasis  means  that  greater  stress  of  the  voice 
which  we  lay  on  some  particular  word  or  words,  in  order  to  mark 
their  superior  importance  in  the  sentence,  and  thereby  the  better  to 
convey  the  idea  intended  by  the  writer  or  speaker. 

1057 1 — 6.  Pauses,  or  rests,  are  cessations  of  the  voice,  in  order 
to  enable  the  reader  or  speaker  to  take  breath,  and  to  give  the  hearer 
a  distinct  perception  of  the  meaning,  not  only  of  each  sentence,  but 
of  the  whole  discourse  (985).    For  poetic  pauses,  see  (1115,  1118). 


PROSODY  —  VERSIFICATION.  285 

1058, — 7.  Tones  consist  in  the  modulation  of  the  voice,  and  the 
notes,  or  variations  of  sound,  wliich  we  employ  in  speaking,  to  express 
the  different  sentiments,  emotions,  or  feelings,  intended. 

%*  A  full  consideration  of  these  topics,  in  a  work  of  this  kind, 
would  be  as  impracticable  as  it  would  be  out  of  place,  since  it  would 
require  a  volume  for  that  purpose.  They  are  fully  treated  of  and 
exemplified  in  works  on  elocution, — a  subject  which  is,  or  should  be,' 
taken  up  as  a  separate  branch  of  study. 


VERSIFICATION. 


1059.  Versification  is  the  art  of  arranging 
words  into  poetical  lines,  or  verses, 

1060.  A  Verse,  or  Poetical  Line,  consists  of  a  certain  num- 
ber of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables,  arranged  according  to  fixed 
rules.  This  regular  alternation  of  long  and  short  syllables  constitutes 
Mhythm, 

1061.  A  Couplet,  or  Distich,  consists  of  two  lines  or  verses 
taken  together,  whether  rhyming  with  each  other  or  not.  A  Triplet 
consists  of  three  lines  rhyming  together. 

1062.  A  Stanza  is  a  combination  of  several  verses  or  lines, 
varying  in  number  according  to  the  poet's  fancy,  and  constituting  a 
regular  division  of  a  poem  or  song.  This  is  often  incorrectly  called 
a  verse. 

1063,  Rhyme  is  the  similarity  of  sound  in  the  last  syllables  of 
two  or  more  lines  arranged  in  a  certain  order.  Poetry,  the  verses 
of  which  have  this  similarity,  is  sometimes  called  Rhyme. 

1064,  SlanJc  Verse  is  the  name  given  to  that  species  of  poetry 
which  is  without  rhyme. 

Feet. 

1065,  Feet  are  the  smaller  portions  into  which  a  line  is  divided 
— each  of  wliich  consists  of  two  or  more  syllables,  combined  according 
to  accent. 

1066,  In  English  versification,  an  accented  syllable  is  ac- 
counted long  ;  an  unaccented  syllable,  short.    In  the  following 


286  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

examples,  a  straight  line,  or  macron  ( - ),  over  a  syllable  sliowa  that 
it  is  accented,  and  a  curved  line,  or  'brem  (  ^ ),  that  it  is  unaccented. 

100  7 »  Monosyllables,  which,  when  alone,  are  regarded  as 
without  accent,  often  receive  it  when  placed  in  a  poetical  line,  and 
are  long  or  short,  according  as  they  are  with  or  without  the  accent. 
Thus— 

"  To  rotlse  him  with  the  spur  and  rein. 
With  more  than  rapture's  ray." 

[In  the  ancient  languages,  each  syllable  has  a  certain  quantity, 
long  or  short,  independent  of  accent,  for  which  there  are  certain  defi- 
nite rules.     In  this  they  differ  widely  from  the  English.] 

1008.  Meter',  or  Measure,  is  the  arrangement  of  a  certain 
number  of  poetical  feet  in  a  verse  or  line. 

1.  When  a  line  has  the  proper  metre,  or  number  of  feet,  it  is  called 
Aeatalectic. 

2.  When  it  is  deficient,  it  is  called  Catalectic, 

3.  When  it  has  a  redundant  syllable,  it  is  called  IIypercata~ 
lectic,  or  Hype rineter, 

1 009,  A  line  consisting  of  one  foot  is  called  tnonometer  ;  of 
two,  dimeter  ;  of  three,  trimeter  ;  of  four,  tetrameter  ;  of  five, 
pentameter  ;  of  six,  heocameter  ;  of  seven,  heptameter, 

1070.  Scanning  is  dividing  a  verse  into  the  feet  of  which  it  is 
composed. 

1071.  All  feet  in  poetry  are  reducible  to  eight  kinds;  four  of 
two  syllables,  and  four  of  three,  as  follows : — 

I.   FEET  OF  TWO   SYLLABLES. 

1.  An  Iambus  -^  — ;  as,  defend. 

2.  A  Trochee  —  'w  ;  as,  noble. 

3.  A  Spondee ;  as,  vain  man. 

4  A  Pyrrhic    -^  ^  ;  as,  on  a  (hill). 

II.   FEET  OF  THREE   SYLLABLES. 

1.  An  Anapaest         ^^  ^-'  —  ;  as,  intercede. 

2.  A  Dactyl  —  v^  w  ;  as.  Durable. 

3.  An  Amphibrach  w  —  ^^  ;  as,  abundant. 

4.  A  Tribrach  — '  — '  •-- ;  as,  (tol)  erable. 

1072.  Of  all  these,  the  prineipal  are  the  Iambus,  Trochee, 
Anapmst,  and  Uactyl.  The  other  four  feet  are  used  chiefly  in 
connection  with  these,  in  order  to  give  variety  to  the  measure. 


PKOSODY  —  VEKSIFIC  ATION.  287 

1073*  A  Trochee  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  last 
unaccented  ;  as,  7idU^,  music. 

1074,  An  Iambus  has  the  first  syllable  unaccented,  and  the 
last  accented  ;  as,  adore,  defend. 

1075,  A  Spondee  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  accented;  as, 
"  vain  man." 

1076,  A  Pyrrhic  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  unaccented; 
as,  "  dn  a  (hill). 

1077,  A  Dactyl  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  two  last 
unaccented ;  as,  mrV'doitiB. 

1078,  An  Amphibrach  has  the  first  and  the  last  syllable  unac- 
cented, and  the  middle  one  accented ;  as,  cdntentment 

1070.  An  Anapcest  has  the  the  two  first  syllables  unaccented, 
and  the  last  accented  ;  as,  IntercMe. 

1080,  A  Tribrach  has  all  its  syllables  unaccented ;  as,  numj^r- 
able. 

1081,  A  verse  is  usually  named  from  the  name  of  the  foot  which 
predominates  in  it ;  thus,  lam^bic,  Trochaic,  etc. 

I.  lam^bic  Verse, 

1082,  An  iambic  verse  consists  of  iambuses,  and  consequently 
has  the  accent  on  the  second,  fourth,  sixth,  etc.,. syllables.  It 
has  different  metres,  as  follows  : 

1.  *Tis  sweet. 

2.  With  thee  |  we  rise. 

3.  In  pla  I  ces  far  |  5r  near. 

4.  H8w  sleep  |  the  brave  |  who  sink  |  to  rest. 

5.  For  me  |  your  trib  |  lita  |  ry  stores  |  combine. 

6.  His  heart  |  is  sad,  |  his  hox)e  |  is  gone,  |  his  light  |  is  passed. 

7.  When  all  |  thymer  |  cies,0  |  my  God,  |  myrls  |  ingsoul  j  surveys. 

1 083,  Each  of  these  kinds  of  iafnbic  verse  may  have  an  ad- 
ditional short  syllable,  and  so  be  called  iambic  hypermeter  ; 
thus : — 

1.  Disdain  |  ing. 

2.  Upon  I  amoun  |  tain. 

3.  When  on  |  her  Mak  \  er's  bo  |  s8m. 

4.  But  hail,  |  thou  god  |  dess,  sage  |  and  ho  |  ly. 

5.  What  slen  |  der  youth  |  bedewed  |  with  liq  |  uid  o  |  dor. 

6.  Whose  front  \  can  brave  |  the  storm  |  but  will  |  not  rear  |  the  flow  |  gr. 

•?.  To  scat[ter  o'er[his  pathjof  fajne|bright  hues  |  of  gem- 1  like  showJSra 


288  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

1084r,  It  often  happens  that  a  trochee ,  or  sometimes  a  spon- 
dee, is  admitted  in  the  place  of  the  first  foot,  which  gives  a 
pleasing  variety  to  the  verse  ;  as — 

Planets  |  and  suns  |  riin  law  |  less  through  |  the  sky. 
Fierce,  hard  [  y,  proud  |  in  con  |  scious  free  ]  dom  bold. 

1085.  Iambic  MonoTueter,  Dimeter,  and  Trimeter, 

—Of  these  meters  there  is  no  regular  form,  but  they  are  sometimes 
introduced  into  stanzas. 

10S6.  lafnbic  Tetr ammeter. — This  verse  may  extend  through 
&  considerable  number  of  stanzas. 

1087*  Iambic  I*entameter.—l&mbic  verse  of  five  feet  is 
called  heroic  verse.  Such  is  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost,"  etc.  By 
the  admission  of  trochees,  anapaests,  etc.,  in  certain  places,  it  is  capable 
of  many  varieties. 

1088,  Iambic  Hexameter, — A  verse  of  six  feet  is  called 
Alexandrine, 

1080.  The  Elegiac  stanza  consists  of  four  pentameter  lines 
rhyming  alternately  ;  as — 

The  cur  |  few  tSUs  |  the  knell  |  5f  part  |  ing  day. 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea  ; 

The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

1090,  The  Spenserian  stanza  (which  takes  its  name  from  the 
poet  Spenser)  consists  of  eight  pentameter  or  heroic  verses,  followed 
by  one  hexameter,  or  Alexandrine  verse.  This  is  the  stanza  in  which 
the  "  Fairie  Queene  "  is  written. 

1091,  Iambic  Heptameter.—l&mhic  verses  of  seven  feet, 
formerly  written  in  one  line,  are  now  commonly  divided  into  two, 
one  of  four,  and  one  of  three  feet ;  as — 

When  all  |  thy  mer  |  cies,  O  |  my  God, 

My  ris  |  ing  soul  |  surveys. 
Transport  |  ed  with  the  view,  |  I'm  lost 

In  won  I  der,  love,  |  and  praise. 

1092,  This  is  called  common  meter.  Stanzas  having  three 
feet  in  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  lines,  and  four  in  the  third,  are 
called  short  meter ;  and  those  consisting  of  four  lines,  each  con- 
taining four  feet,  are  called  long  meter. 


PEOSODY  — VERSIFICATION.  289 

TrocJiaic  Verse, 
lot) 3.  Trochaic  verse  consists  of  Trochees,  and  consequently 
lias  the  accent  on  the  Jirst,  third,  fifth,  et^  syUables.    It  has 
different  meters,  as  follows  : — 

1.  Staying. 

2.  Rich  the  |  treasure. 

3.  Go  where  |  glory  |  waits  thee. 

4.  Maids  are  |  sitting  |  by  the  |  fountain. 

5.  Oh !  the  |  strife  of  |  this  di  |  vided  |  being. 

6.  On  a  I  mountain,  |  stretched  be  |  neath  a  |   hoary  |  will5w. 

1094,  Each  of  these  may  take  an  additional  long  syllable,  and  so 
become  hypercatcUectic,  ovhypermeter  ;  thus— 

1.  Tumult  I  cease. 
2.  In  the  1  days  of  |  old. 

3.  Restless  |  mortals  [  toil  for  |  nought. 

4.  Idle  I  after  |  dinner,  |  in  his  |  chair. 

5.  Hail  to  I  thee,  blithe  |  spirit !  |  bird  thou  |  never  |  wert. 
6.  Night  and  |  morning  |  were  at  |  meeting,  |  over  |  Water  |  loo. 

1095,  In  the  last  two  forms,  each  line  is  usually  divided  into 
two  ;  thus — 

5.  Hail  to  I  thee,  blithe  |  spirit  I 

Bird  thou  |  never  |  wert. 

6.  Night  and  |  morning  |  were  at  j  meeting, 

Over  I  Water  ]  loo. 

1096,  Trochaic  verse,  with  an  additional  long  syllable  at  the 
end,  is  the  same  as  Iambic  verse  wanting  a  short  syllable  at 
the  beginning. 

Anapcestic  Verse. 

1097,  Anapcestic  verse  consists  chiefly  of  Anapcssts,  and,  when 
pure,  has  the  accent  on  every  third  syllable.  It  has  different  me- 
ters, as  follows : — 

1.  But  tSo  far. 
2.  Biit  his  cour  |  age  'gan  fail. 
3.  O  ye  woods  !  |  spread  your  branch  1  es  apace. 
To  your  deep  |  est  recess  |  es  I  fly  ; 
I  would  hide  |  with  the  beasts  |  of  the  chase, 
I  would  van  |  ish  from  ev  [  ery  eye. 
4.  M&y  I  gov  I  em  my  pas  |  siSns  with  ab  |  solute  swa$r, 
And  grow  wis  J  er  and  bet  |  ter  as  life  |  wears  away. 


290  EI^GLISH     GRAMMAR. 

1098,  Of  these,  tlie  first  is  aiubiguous  y  for  by  placing  an 
accent  on  the  first  syllable,  it  becomes  a  trochaic  monometer  hyper- 
meter. 

1099,  The  se<^nd  sometimes  admits  an  additional  short  syllable, 
at  the  end ;  as — 

On  the  road  |  by  thS  val  \  ley. 

As  he  wan  |  dered  lament  |  ing ; 
To  the  green  |  of  the  for  |  est, 

He  returned  |  him  repent  |  ing. 

1100,  The  third  is  a  very  pleasing  measure,  and  is  much  used 
in  both  solenm  and  cheerful  subjects ;  but  it  seldom  takes  an  addi- 
tional syllable. 

1101,  The  fourth,  or  tetrameter,  admits  an  additionae 
syllable,  which  often  has  a  pleasing  effect ;  as — 

On  the  warm  \  cheek  of  youth  j  smiles  and  ros  |  es  are  blend  j  ing. 

Dactylic  Verse. 

1102,  Dactylic  verse  consists  chiefly  of  Dactyls,  and  has  the 
following  varieties : — 

1.  Fearfully. 
2.  Free  from  sa  |  tiety, 
Care  and  anx  |  iety. 
Charms  in  va  |  riety 
Fall  to  his  |  share. 
3.  Wearing  a  |  way  in  his  |  youthfulness 
llOS,  Each  of  these  sometimes  takes  an  additional  long 
syllable,  and  so  becomes  hypermeter  ;  as — 
1.  Over  a  |  mead. 
Pricking  his  |  steed. 
2.  Covered  with  |  snow  was  the  |  vale. 
Sad  was  the  |  shriek  of  the  |  gale. 
8.  Time  it  has  |  passed,  and  the  |  lady  is  |  pale, 

1104,  By  combining  these  kinds,  examples  of  tetrameter,  pen- 
wM^neter,  and  even  heocameter  are  obtained ;  but  they  are  sel- 
dom used, 

1105,  K  dactylic  verse  seldom  ends  with  a  dactyl;  it  more 
commonly  adds  a  long  syllable,  sometimes  a  trochee,  as  in  the 
itollowing  lines : — 

Brightest  and  |  best  6f  the  1  sons  of  the  |  mSming, 
Pawn  on  our  |  darkness  and  |  lead  us. thine  J  aid. 


PROSODY  —  VERSIFICATION.  291 

1106,  The  following  is  an  example  of  dactyls  and  spondees 

alternately : — 

Green  in  tlig]  wild  wood  |  proudly  the|tall  tree|looks  6n  thejbrown  plain. 
The  following  is  an  example  of  pure  dactylic  hexameter  : — 
Ovgr  the|valley,  withlspeed  like  the|wind,  all  thejsteeds  were  &  |  gal- 
16ping. 

1107,  Considering  the  beauty  of  this  kind  of  verse,  and  its 
peculiar  adaptedness  to  gay  and  cheerful  movements,  it  is  surprising 
that  it  has  not  been  more  cultivated. 

Mixed  Verses, 

1108,  Scarcely  any  poem  is  perfectly  regular  in  its  feet.  Iam- 
bic verse,  for  example,  sometimes  admits  other  feet  into  the  line, 
particularly  at  the  beginning,  as  has  been  already  noticed.  The  fol- 
lowing are  examples  of  iambic  lines  with  different  feet  intro- 
duced : — 

Trochee.  Prophet  |  of  plagues,  |  forev  |  er  bod  |  ing  ill ! 
Dactyl.     Murmuring,  |  and  with  |  him  fled  |  the  shades  |  of  night. 
AnapcEst,  Before  |  all  tem  |  pies  the  Up  |  right  heart  |  and  pure. 
Pyrrhic.   Brought  death  |  into  |  the  world  |  and  all  |  our  wo. 
Tribrach.  And  thun  |  ders  down  |  impet  |  iioiis  to  |  the  plain. 

1109,  In  ia'inbic  verse,  the  initial  short  syllable  is  sometimes 
omitted  ;  and  the  verse  becomes  trochaic  with  an  additional  long 
syllable. 

1110,  In  trochaic  verse,  the  initial  long  syllable  is  sometimes 
omitted ;  and  the  line  becomes  iambic  with  an  additional  short 
syllable. 

1111,  If  the  two  short  syllables  are  omitted  at  the  beginning  of 
of  an  anapcestic  line,  it  becomes  dactylic  with  a  long  syllable 
added.    So — 

1112,  If  the  initial  long  syllable  is  omitted  in  a  dactylic  verse, 
it  becomes  anapcestic  with  two  short  syllables  added. 

Ills.   A  pleasing    movement    is    produced    by  internmigling 
iam,buses  and  anapcests,  as  in  the  following  lines : — 
"  I  come,  I  I  come !  |  ye  have  called  |  me  long  ; 
I  come  I  o'er  the  moiin  |  tains  with  light  |  and  song  I 
Ye  may  trace  |  my  steps  |  o'er  the  wak  |  ening  eartl^ 
By  the  winds  |  wliich  tell  |  of  the  vi  |  51et's  birth. 
By  the  prim  |  rose  stars  |  of  the  shad  |  5wy  grass, 
By  the  green  |  leaves  op  )  ening  as  |  I  pass." 


»9»  EKGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

1114:,  In  odes  and  lyric  pieces,  verses  of  different  kinds  and 
different  meters  or  measures  are  often  interniingled,  after  the 
manner  of  tlie  ancient  choral  odes,  with  a  pleasing  effect.  "  Alexan- 
der's Feast,"  Collins's  "  Ode  to  the  Passions,"  etc.,  are  examples. 

Poetic  Pauses. 

1115,  Besides  the  usual  pauses  required  to  mark  the  sense  in 
reading,  and  which  may  be  called  sentential  pauses,  indicated  by  the 
punctuation,  there  are  other  pauses  in  poetic  composition  required  by, 
and  necessary  to  give  proper  effect  to,  the  movement  of  the  line. 

1116,  These  are  chiefly  the  Final  pause  and  the  CcesuraZ 


1117,  The  final  pause  is  generally  required  at  the  end  of 
QYQTj  line  of  poetry,  even  where  there  is  no  sentential  pause  ;  but  it 
should  not  be  too  distinctly  marked,  as  it  consists  merely  in  a  brief 
suspension  of  the  voice  without  any  change  in  the  tone  or  pitch. 
When  a  sentential  pause  occurs  at  the  end  of  the  line,  as  it  does  very 
often,  it  takes  the  place  of,  and  supersedes  the  final  pause. 

1118,  The  ccesural  pause  is  a  suspension  of  the  voice  some- 
where in  the  line  itself,  for  which  no  rule  can  be  given,  but  which 
will  always  be  manifest  when  poetry  is  well  read.  It  does  not  occur 
in  very  short  lines.  In  lines  of  some  length,  it  generally  occurs  near 
the  middle ;  sometimes,  however,  nearer  the  beginning,  and  some- 
times nearer  the  end ;  often  in  the  middle  of  a  foot,  but  never  in  the 
middle  of  a  word.  Sometimes,  besides  this,  a  sort  of  demicmsural 
pause  is  required,  to  give  full  effect  to  the  expression.  The  following 
lines  furnish  examples  of  the  ccesural  pause  in  different  parts  of  the 
line,  and  also  of  the  demiccesural  pause.  The  former  is  marked 
i"),  and  the  latter  ('):— 

"  The  steer  and  lion"  at  one  crib  shall  meet. 
And  harmless  serpents"  lick  the  pilgrim's  feet." 

"  The  crested  basilisk"  and  speckled  snake." 

"  And  on  the  sightless  eyeballs"  pour  the  day." 

"  But  not  to  me  returns 

Day,"  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  mom." 

**  No  sooner  had  the  Almighty  ceased,"  but  ail 
The  multitude  of  angels"  with  a  shout, 
Loud"  as  from  numbers  without  numbers,"  sweet 
As  from  blest  voices"  uttering  joy." 


PROSODY  —  COMPOSITION.  29d 

•  Warms'  in  tlio  sun/  refreshes'  in  the  breeze, 
Glows'  in  the  staxs,"  and  blossoms'  in  the  trees ; 
Lives'  through  all  life,"  extends'  through  all  extent. 
Spreads'  undivided,"  operates'  unspent." 
These  pauses  depend  in  part  upon  emphasis. 

EXERCISES. 

As  exercises  in  scanning,  lines  or  stanzas  from  anj  poetical  work 
may  be  selected. 


COMPOSITION. 


1110,  Composition  is  the  art  of  expressing  our 
thoughts  in  spoken  or  written  language.  It  is  of  two 
kinds,  Prose  and  Poetry. 

1120,  Prose  compositions  are  those  in  which  the  thoughts  are 
expressed  in  the  natural  order,  in  common  ^d  ordinary  language. 

1121,  Poetic  compositions  are  those  in  which  the  thoughts  and 
sentiments  are  expresse3  in  measured  verse,  in  loftier  and  more  in- 
verted style,  by  words  and  figures  selected  and  arranged  so  as  to 
please  the  ear,  and  captivate  the  fancy. 

1122,  In  both  of  these,  speech  or  discourse  is  either  direct  or 
indirect. 

1123,  Direct  discourse  is  that  in  which  a  writer  or  speaker 
delivers  his  own  sentiments. 

1124,  Indirect  or  oblique  discourse  is  that  in  which  a 
person  relates,  in  his  own  language,  what  another  speaker  or  writer 
said. 

1125,  In  the  first,  when  the  speaker  refers  to  himself,,  he 

uses  the  first  person  J  or  we.     When  he  refers  to  the  person  or  per- 
sons addressed,  he  uses  the  second  person  tliou,  you,  etc. 

1126,  In  the  second  or  indirect  discourse,  whether  the 
speaker  is  reported  as  referring  to  himself,  or  to  those  whom  he  ad- 
dresses, the  third  person  is  used  in  either  case ;  as,  Tie,  ilie, 
etc.    An  example  will  best  illustrate  the  distinction.    Thus  : — 


294  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

1127 •  DIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

Then  Paul  stood  in  the  midst  of  Mars-hill  and  said  :  **  Ye  men  of 
Athens,  I  perceive  that  in  all  things  ye  are  too  superstitious  ;  for  as  I 
passed  by  and  beheld  your  devotions,  I  found  an  altar  with  this  in- 
scription :  '  To  THE  Unknown  God.'  Whom,  therefore,  ye  ignorantly 
worship,  Him  declare  I  unto  you." 

1128,  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

The  same,  reported  in  indirect  or  oblique  discourse,  would  run 
thus : — 

Then  Paul,  standing  on  Mars-hill,  told  the  men  of  Athens,  he  per- 
ceived that  in  all  things  they  were  too  superstitious  ;  for  as  he  passed 
by  and  beheld  their  devotions,  he  found  an  altar  with  this  inscription : 
"  To  THE  Unknown  God."  Whom,  therefore,  they  ignorantly  wor- 
shipped, Him  declared  he  unto  them. 

1129,  When  the  reporter,  the  speaker  reported,  and  the  person 
or  persons  addressed,  are  different  in  gender  or  number,  there  is  no 
danger  of  ambiguity.  But  when  in  these  respects  they  are  the  same, 
ambiguity  is  unavoidable,  from  the  same  pronoun  being  used  in  the 
progress  of  the  discours^to  designate  different  persons.  Hence,  to 
prevent  mistakes,  it  is  oncn  necessary  to  insert  the  name  or  designa- 
tion of  the  person  meant  by  the  pronoun.  An  example  will  best 
illustrate  this  also  : — 

"  Then  the  son  went  to  his  father  and  said  to  him  [direct],  '  I  have 
sinned  against  heaven  and  in  thy  sight.'  " 

"  Then  the  son  went  to  his  father  and  said  to  him  [indirect],  that 
he  (the  son)  had  sinned  against  heaven  and  in  his  (his  father's)  sight." 

It  will  at  once  be  perceived  that,  without  the  words  enclosed  in 
parenthesis,  for  explanation,  it  would  be  impossible  to  tell  whether  by 
the  word  he,  the  father  or  the  son  was  intended  ;  so  also  with  respect 
to  the  word  his.  Hence,  when  by  the  indirect  discourse,  ambiguity  is 
unavoidable,  it  is  generally  better  to  have  recourse  to  the  direct  form, 
and  quote  the  writer's  or  speaker's  own  words,  as  in  (1127). 

1130,  The  principal  kinds  of  prose  composition  are — narra- 
tive, letters,  memoirs^  history,  biography,  essays,  phi- 
losophy, sermons,  novels,  speeches,  and  orations, 

1131,  The  principal  kinds  of  poetical  composition  are — the 
epigram,  the  epitaph,  the  sonnet,  pastoral  poetry,  didac- 
tic poetry,  satires,  descriptive  poetry,  elegy,  lyric  poetry, 
dramatic  poetry,  and  epic  poetry. 


PROSODY  —  COMPOSITION.  295 


The  Use  of  Grammar  in  Composition. 

1132.  To  speak  and  write  with  propriety,  in  every  species  of 
composition,  is  an  attainment  of  no  small  importance  ;  and  to  lead  to 
this  attainment  is  the  business  of  grammar.  The  grammar  of  a  lan- 
guage is  just  a  compilation  of  rules  and  directions,  agreeably  to  which 
that  language  is  spoken  or  written.  These  rules,  however,  are  not 
the  invention  of  the  grammarian,  nor  dependent  on  his  authority  for 
their  validity.  As  it  is  the  business  of  the  philosopher,  not  to  make  a 
law  of  Nature,  nor  to  dictate  how  her  operations  should  be  performed, 
but,  by  close  observation,  to  ascertain  what  those  laivs  are, 
and  to  state  them  for  the  information  of  others  ;  so  the  business  of 
the  grammarian  is,  not  to  make  the  laws  of  language,  for  language 
is  before  grammar,  but  to  observe  and  note  those  principles, 
and  forms,  and  modes  of  speech,  by  which  men  are  accustomed  to 
express  their  sentiments,  and  to  arrange  the  results  of  his  observation 
into  a  system  of  rules  for  the  guidance  and  assistance  of  others.  It  is 
obvious,  then,  that  the  ultimate  principle  or  test  to  which  the  rules 
laid  down  by  the  grammarian  must  conform,  is  the  best  usage. 

1133.  Hence,  when  the  inquiry  is  whether  a  particular  word  or 
form  of  speech  is  right,  is  good  English,  the  only  question  to  be 
decided  is,  ^^  Is  it  according  to  the  best  usage  ?"  On  this 
subject,  however,  it  has  been  made  a  question,  "  What  is  the  best 
usage?"  The  following  sentiments,  abridged  from  Dr.  Crombie's 
work  on  English  Etymology  and  Syntax,  seem  to  be  just,  and  com- 
prehensive of  this  whole  subject : — 

The  Law  of  Language. 

1134.  The  usage  which  gives  law  to  language,  in  order  to 
establish  its  authority,  or  to  entitle  its  suffrage  to  our  assent,  must  be, 
in  the  first  place,  reputable  ;  by  which  is  meant,  not  the  usage  of 
the  court,  nor  great  men,  nor  merely  scientific  men  ;  but  of  those 
whose  works  are  esteemed  hy  the  picblic,  and  who  may  therefore  be 
denominated  reputable  authors. 

1135.  In  the  second  place,  this  usage  must  be  national.  It 
must  not  be  confined  to  this  or  that  province  or  district.  "  Those,"  to 
use  Campbell's  apposite  similitude,  "  who  deviate  from  the  beaten  road 
may  be  incomparably  more  numerous  than  those  who  travel  in  it ;  yet, 
into  whatever  number  of  by-paths  the  former  may  be  divided,  there 


296  EJ^GLISH    GRAMMAR. 

may  not  be  found  in  any  one  of  these  tracks  so  many  as  travel  in  th% 
king's  highway." 

1136,  TJdrdly,  This  usage  must  be  presenf.  It  is  diflBcult  to 
fix,  with  any  precision,  what  usage  may  in  all  cases  be  deemed 
present.  It  is,  perhaps,  in  this  respect,  diiferent  with  different  com- 
positions. In  general,  words  and  forms  of  speech  which  have  been 
long  disused  should  not  be  employed.  And  so,  on  the  contrary,  the 
usage  of  the  present  day  is  not  implicitly  to  be  adopted.  Mankind 
are  fond  of  novelty,  and  there  is  a  fashion  in  language  as  there  is 
in  dress.  Whim,  vanity,  and  affectation,  delight  in  creating  new 
words,  and  using  new  forms  of  pbraseology.  Now,  to  adopt  every 
new-fangled  upstart  at  its  birth,  would  argue,  not  taste,  nor  judgment, 
but  childish  fondness  for  singularity  and  novelty.  But  should  any 
of  these  maintain  its  ground,  and  receive  the  sanction  of  reputable 
usage,  it  must  in  that  case  be  received. 

1137 »  The  usage,  then,  which  gives  law  to  language,  and  wliich 
is  generally  denominated  good  usage,  must  be  reputable,  ua^ 
tional,  and  present.  It  happens,  however,  that  "  good  usage  "  is 
not  always  uniform  in  her  decisions,  and  that  in  unquestionable 
authorities  are  found  far  different  modes  of  expression.  In  such 
cases,  the  foUoAving  canons,  proposed  by  Dr.  Campbell,  will  be  of 
service  in  enabling  to  decide  to  which  phraseology  the  preference 
ought  to  be  given.  They  are  given  nearly  in  the  words  of  tha 
author : — 

113S*  Cakok  1. — When  the  usage  is  divided  as 

to  any  particular  words  or  phrases,  and  when  one  of  the 
expressions  is  susceptible  of  a  different  meaning,  while  the 
other  admits  of  only  one  signification,  the  expression 
which  is  strictlj  univocal  should  he  preferred. 

1139,  Cakon^  2.— In  doubtful  cases,  analogy 
should  be  regarded. 

114z0,  Cakois'  3. — When  expressions  are,  in  other  re- 
spects, equals  that  should  he  preferred  which  is  most 
agreeable  to  the  ear, 

114:1,  (jA.^0^  4. — When  none  of  the  preceding  rules 
takes  place,  regard  should  be  had  to  simplicity, 

114:2,  But  though  no  expression  or  mode  of  speech  can  be  justi* 


PROSODY  —  COMPOSITIOIT.  297 

fied  whicli  is  not  sanctioned  by  usage,  yet  the  converse  does  not 
follow — ^that  every  phraseology  sanctioned  by  usage  should  be  re- 
tained. In  many  such  cases,  custom  may  properly  be  checked  by 
criticism,  whose  province  it  is,  not  only  to  remonstrate  against  the 
introduction  of  any  words  or  phraseology  which  may  be  either  un- 
neccessary  or  contrary  to  analogy,  but  also  to  extrude  whatever  is 
reprehensible,  though  in  general  use.  It  is  by  this,  her  prerogative, 
that  languages  are  gradually  rejfined  and  improved.  In  exercising 
this  authority,  she  can  not  pretend  to  degrade  instantly  any  phrase- 
ology which  she  may  deem  objectionable  ;  but  she  may,  by  repeated 
remonstrances,  gradually  effect  its  dismission.  Her  decisions  in  such 
cases  may  be  properly  regulated  by  the  following  rules,  laid  down 
by  the  same  author : — 

114:3.  Rule  1. — ^All  words  and  phrases  particularly  harsh, 
and  not  absolutely  necessary,  should  be  dismissed. 

1144,  Rule  2. — When  the  etymology  plainly  points  to  a 
different  signification  from  what  the  word  bears,  propriety  and 
simplicity  require  its  dismission. 

1145.  Rule  3. — When  words  become  obsolete ,  or  are  never 
used  but  in  particular  phrases,  they  should  be  repudiatedf  as  they 
give  the  style  an  air  of  vulgarity  and  cant  when  this  general  disuse 
renders  them  obscure. 

11 40.  Rule  4. — All  words  and  phrases  which,  analyzed  gram- 
matically, include  a  solecism^  should  be  dismissed. 

1147.  Rule  5. — All  expressions  which,  according  to  the  estab- 
lished rules  of  language,  either  have  no  tneaning,  or  involve  a 
cofitradiction,  or,  according  to  a  fair  construction  of  the  words, 
convey  a  mefyaing  different  from  the  intention  of  the  speaker, 
should  be  dismissed. 

11 48.  In  order  to  write  any  language  with  grammatical  purity, 
three  things  are  required : — 

1.  That  the  words  be  all  of  that  language.  The  violation  of 
this  rule  is  called  a  barbarism. 

2.  That  they  be  construed  and  arranged  according  to  the  rules 
of  syntax  in  that  language.  A  violation  of  this  rule  is  called  a 
solecism. 

3.  That  they  be  employed  in  that  sense  which  usage  has  annexed 
to  them.    A  violation  of  this  rule  is  called  impropriety. 


'298  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

114:9,  A  barbarism  is  an  offense  against  lexicography^ 
a  solecism  is  an  offense  against  the  rules  of  syntadc  ;  and  an 
impropriety  is  an  offense  against  lexicography ,  by  mistaking 
the  meaning  of  words  and  phrases. 

Hints  for  Correct  and  Elegant  Writing, 

IISO.  Correct  and  elegant  writing  depends  partly 
upon  the  choice  of  words ^  and  partly  upon  thefortn 
and  structure  of  sentences. 

I.  In  so  far  as  respects  single  words,  the  chief  things 
to  be  observed  are  purity,  propriety,  and  precision. 

Purity. 

1151,  Purity  consists  in  the  rejection  of  such  words  and 
phrases  as  are  not  strictly  English,  nor  in  accordance  with  the  prac- 
tice of  good  writers  or  speakers. 

1.  Avoid  foreign  words  and  modes  of  expression ;  as,  "Fraicheur  " 
— "politesse  " — "  He  repents  him  of  his  folly." 

2.  Avoid  obsolete  and  unauthorized  words ;  as,  albeit,  afore^ 
time,  inspectator,  judgmatical. 

Propriety. 

1152.  Propriety  consists  in  the  use  of  such  words  as  are  best 
adapted  to  express  our  meaning. 

1.  Avoid  low  and  provincial  expressions ;  as,  "  To  get  into  a 
scrape." 

2.  In  writing  prose,  reject  words  that  are  merely  poetical ;  as, 
"This  morn." — "  The  celestial  orbs." 

3.  Avoid  technical  terms,  imless  you  write  for  those  who  perfectly 
understand  them. 

4.  Do  not  use  the  safne  word  too  frequently ^ot  in  different 
senses  ;  as,  "  The  king  communicated  his  intention  to  the  minister, 
who  disclosed  it  to  the  secretary,  who  made  it  known  to  the  public." — 
*'  His  own  reason  might  have  suggested  better  reasons. 

5.  Supply  words  that  are  tvantingf  and  necessary  to  com- 
plete the  sense.  Thus,  instead  of  "  This  action  increased  his  former 
services,"  say,  "  This  action  increased  the  merit  of  his  former  serv 
ices." 


PROSODY  —  COMPOSITION.  299 

6.  Avoid  equivocal  or  ambiguous  expressions;  as,  "His 
memory  shall  be  lost  on  the  earth." 

7.  Avoid  unintelligible  and  inconsistent  expressions ;  as, "  1 
have  an  opaque  idea  of  what  you  mean." 

Precision. 
1153.  Precision  rejects  superfluous  words. 

1.  Avoid  tautology  ;  as,  "  His  faithfulness  and  fidelity  were  un* 
equaled." 

2.  Observe  the  eocact  meaning  of  words  accounted  synonymous. 
Thus,  instead  of  "  Though  his  actions  and  intentions  were  good,  he 
lost  his  cTiaracter,"  say,  "  He  lost  his  reputation." 

II.  With  respect  to  sentences^  clearness,  unity,  strength, 
and  a  proper  application  of  the  figures  of  speech,  are  neces- 
sary. 

Clearness. 

1154:,  Clearness  demands  a  proper  arrangement  of  words. 

1.  Adverbs,  relative  pronouns,  and  ex-planatory  phra- 
ses, must  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  words  which  they 
affect,  and  in  such  situation  as  the  sense  requires. 

2.  In  prose,  a  poetic  collocation  must  be  avoided. 

3.  Pronouns  must  be  so  used  as  clearly  to  indicate  the  word  for 
which  they  stand. 

Unity. 

1155.  Unity  retains  one  predominant  object  throughout  a  sen- 
tence, or  a  series  of  clauses. 

1.  Separate  into  distinct  sentences  such  clauses  as  have  no 
immediate  connection. 

2.  The  principal  words  must,  throughout  a  sentence,  be  the 
most  prominent,  and  only  one  leading  subject  should  be  presented. 

3.  Avoid  the  introduction  oi  parentheses,  except  when  a  lively 
remark  may  be  thrown  in,  without  too  long  suspending  the  sense  of 
what  goes  before. 

Strength. 

1156.  Strength  gives  to  every  word  and  every  member  its  due 
Importance. 

1.  Reject  all  superfluous  words  and  members.  This  is 
also  one  of  the  elements  of  precision  (1153).     In  the  following  sen» 


300        -.  Eiq^GLISH    GKAMMAR. 

tence,  the  word  printed  in  italics  should  be  omitted :  "  Being  conscious 
of  his  own  integrity,  he  disdained  submission." 

2.  Place  the  most  important  words  in  the  situation  in  which 
they  will  make  the  strongest  impression. 

3.  A  iveaJaer  assertion  should  not  follow  a  stronger ;  and, 
when  the  sentence  consists  of  two  members,  the  longer  should  be 
the  concluding  one, 

4.  When  two  things  are  compared  or  contrasted  with  each  other 
where  either  resemblance  or  opposition  is  to  be  expressed,  some  re- 
semblance in  the  language  and  construction  should  be  preserved. 

5.  A  sentence  should  not  be  concluded  with  a  2*f  ^position, 
or  any  inconsiderable  word  or  phrase,  imless  it  is  emphatic. 

1157-  Figures  of  Speech. 

1.  Figurative  language  must  be  used  sparingly,  and  never 
except  when  it  serves  to  illustrate  or  enforce  what  is  said. 

2.  Figures  #/  speech,  when  used,  should  be  such  as  appear 
natural,  not  remote  or  foreign  from  the  subject,  and  not  pursued 
too  far. 

3.  Literal  audi  figurative  language  should  never  be  blended 
together. 

4.  When  figurative  language  is  used,  the  same  figure  should  be 
preserved  throughout,  and  different  figures  never  jumbled  together. 

Transposition, 

lis 8,  As  a  preparatory  step  to  the  important  business  of  compo- 
sition, the  pupil,  after  he  has  acquired  a  knowledge  of  grammar,  may 
be  exercised  with  great  advantage  upon  the  transposition  of 
words  and  members  in  sentences,  so  as  to  try  in  how  many  different 
ways  the  same  thought  or  sentiment  may  be  expressed.  This  will 
give  him  a  command  of  language,  and  prove,  at  the  same  time,  a 
source  of  considerable  mental  cultivation.  It  is  often  necessary  to 
give  an  entirely  new  turn  to  an  expression,  before  a  sentence  ca£  be 
rendered  elegant,  or  even  perspicuous. 

1159,  There  are  chiefly  four  ways  in  which  the  mode  of  ex- 
pressing a  thought  may  be  varied  : — 

1.  By  changing  an  active  into  a  passive,  or  a  passive  into  an 
active  verb  ;  as,  "  The  sun  dissolves  the  snow." — "  The  snow  is  di» 
solved  by  the  sun." 


PROSODY  —  COMPOSITIOIT.  301 

2.  By  inversions  or  transpositions,  which  consist  in  changing  the 
order  in  which  the  words  stand  in  a  sentence ;  as,  "  Competence 
may  be  acquired  by  industry." — "  By  industry,  competence  may  be 
acquired." 

3.  By  changing  an  ajflrmatwe  into  a  negative^  or  a  negative 
into  an  aflBrmative,  of  an  entirely  contrary  character;  as,  "Virtue 
promotes  happiness." — "  Virtue  does  not  promote  misery." 

4.  By  either  a  partial  or  an  entire  change  of  the  words  em- 
ployed to  express  any  sentiment ;  as,  "  Diligence  and  application  are 
the  best  means  of  improvement." — "  Nothing  promotes  improvement 
like  diligence  and  application." 

EXERCISES  ON  TRANSPOSITION. 

The  Roman  state  evidently  declined,  in  proportion  to  the  increase 
of  luxury.  I  am  willing  to  remit  all  that  is  past,  provided  it  can  be 
done  with  safety.  A  good  man  has  respect  to  the  feelings  of  others 
in  all  that  he  says  or  does.  Bravely  to  contend  for  a  good  cause  is 
noble  ;  silently  to  suffer  for  it  is  heroic. 

EXAMPLE  OF  TRANSPOSITION 

The  Roman  state  evidently  declined,  in  proportion  to  the  increase 
of  luxury.  In  proportion  to  the  increase  of  luxury,  the  Roman  state 
evidently  declined.  The  Roman  state,  in  proportion  to  the  increase 
of  luxury,  evidently  declined. 

EXERCISES  ON  VARIETY  OP  EXPRESSION. 

His  conduct  was  less  praiseworthy  than  his  sister's.  It  is  better  to 
be  moved  by  false  glory  than  not  to  be  moved  at  all.  I  shall  attend 
tlie  meeting,  if  I  can  do  it  with  convenience.  He  who  improves  in 
modesty  as  he  improves  in  knowledge,  has  an  undoubted  claim  to 
greatness  of  mind.  The  spirit  of  true  religion  breathes  gentleness 
and  affability. 

EXAMPLE  OP  VARIETY  OP  EXPRESSION. 

His  conduct  was  less  praiseworthy  than  his  sister's.  His  sister's 
conduct  was  more  praiseworthy  than  his.  His  sister's  mode  of  acting 
was  entitled  to  more  praise  than  his.  His  conduct  was  less  entitled 
to  praise  than  that  of  his  sister,  etc. 

1160,  Another  exercise,  not  destitute  of  utility  as  a  foundation 
for  composition,  consists  in  giving  the  pupil,  especially  if  very  young, 
a  list  of  words f  with  directions  to  form  from  them  such  sentences 
»3  sliall  contain  these  words. 


802  ElTGLISn    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES   IN   COMPOSITION. 

Construct  a  number  of  such  sentences  as  shall  each  contain  one  or 
more  of  the  following  words : — Contentment,  behavior,  consideration, 
elevation,  distance,  application,  respect,  duty,  intercourse,  evidence, 
social,  bereavement,  nonsensical,  absurdity,  elucidate,  consternation, 
temperance,  luxury,  disarm,  expatiate,  etc. 

Letters. 

1161,  One  of  the  simplest  and  yet  most  useful  species  of  compo- 
Bition  is  letter  tvriting.  This  species  of  composition  may  be  prac- 
ticed either  by  way  of  real  correspondence  between  those 
pursuing  the  same  studies,  or  it  may  consist  of  letters  written  to 
ifnaginary  correspondents.  The  following  are  a  few  topics  adapted 
to  composition  of  this  latter  kind  : — 

Letter  1. — Write  to  a  friend  at  a  distance.  State  to  him  the 
object  of  your  writing.  Tell  him  what  studies  you  are  pursuing,  and 
how  you  like  them.  Mention  how  yourself  and  friends  are.  Give  an 
account  of  some  of  the  alterations  wliich  have  been  lately  made,  or 
are  now  making,  in  your  neighborhood  ;  and  conclude  by  expressing 
your  desire  either  to  see  him  or  hear  from  him  soon. 

Letter  2, — Write  to  a  companion  an  account  of  a  long  walk 
which  you  lately  had.  Tell  him  whether  you  were  alone  or  in  com- 
pany. Mention  what  particular  thing  struck  you  by  the  way ;  and 
enumerate  all  the  incidents  of  any  moment  that  occurred. 

Letter  3, — Write  to  a  friend  who  is  supposed  to  have  sent  you  a 
present  of  books,  and  thank  him  for  such  kindness.  Tell  him  the  use 
you  intend  to  make  of  them ;  and  inform  him  to  what  particular 
books  you  are  most  partial.  Conclude  by  giving  some  account  of 
those  you  have  lately  been  reading,  and  how  you  like  them. 

Letter  4. — Write  to  a  friend  supposed  to  be  going  abroad.  De- 
scribe to  him  how  you  would  feel  if  called  to  leave  your  friends  and 
your  native  country.  Express  your  regret  at  losing  him,  but  state 
your  hope  that  you  will  not  forget  each  other  when  seas  roll  between 
you.  Request  him  to  write  to  you  frequently ;  and  advise  him  to  be 
careful  about  his  health  and  of  the  society  he  keeps. 

Letter  S. — Write  to  a  friend  at  a  distance,  and  give  him  an 
account  of  a  sail  which  you  lately  had  in  a  steamboat.  Mention  what 
places  you  visited,  and  state  the  objects  that  most  delighted  you. 
Tell  him  how  long  you  were  away,  what  sort  of  weather  you  had, 
and  what  were  your  feelings  upon  returning  homa 


PROSODY  —  COMPOSITION^.  303 

Letter  6. — Write  to  a  friend  an  account  of  the  church  you  were 
at  last  Sabbath.  Tell  who  preached.  Mention  the  psalms  or  hymns 
that  were  sung,  and  the  port;ions  of  Scripture  that  were  read.  State 
the  text  from  which  the  minister  preached  ;  and  give  your  opinion  of 
the  different  sermons. 

1102.  These  have  been  given  as  mere  specimens  of  the  subjects 
upon  which  the  student  who  has  acquired  a  knowledge  of  grammar 
may  be  required  to  write.  The  prudent  and  skillful  teacher  will  be 
enabled  to  multiply  and  vary  them  at  pleasure  to  any  extent. 

Keproduction, 

1163»  Another  method  of  exercising  the  minds  of  pupils  in  com- 
jKisition  consists  in  reading  some  shnple  story  or  narrative, 
till  such  time  as  they  are  acquainted  with  the  facts,  and  then 
directing  them  to  express  these  in  their  own  tvorcls.  A  still 
further,  and  perhaps  even  a  simpler  method,  is,  to  take  advantage  of 
a  young  person's  having  given  some  account  of  what  he  has  either 
seen,  heard,  or  read,  and  desire  him  to  commit  to  writing  what 
he  has  stated  orally. 

Impromptu  Composition, 

1104,  For  the  purpose  of  securing  readiness  and  facility  in  the 
expression  of  thought,  and  cultivating  vigor  of  mind,  inijtrotnptii 
exercises  in  composition  are  earnestly  recommended.  The  pupils 
are  all  seated  with  slate  (or  paper)  and  pencil  in  hand,  when  the 
teacher  writes  upon  the  blackboard  or  announces  some  dmple  theme. 
At  a  given  signal  all  the  pupils  begin  to  write.  The  exercises  may 
occupy  from  three  to  ten  minutes.  At  a  signal  from  the  teacher  all 
cease  writing.  No  emendations  are  afterward  to  be  made  by  any 
pupil,  before  the  reading.  Each  pupil,  or  so  many  as  it  is  deemed 
expedient,  may  now  be  called  upon  to  read,  and  the  pupils  first,  and 
afterward  the  teacher,  criticize  in  a  friendly  spirit.  The  results  at 
first  wiU  not  be  very  promising,  but  practice  will  develop  skill  on  the 
part  of  the  pupils,  and  create  interest  in  the  exercise. 

TJienies, 

llOii,  The  next  step  in  composition  is  the  writing  of  regular 
themes.  The  subject,  however,  should  always  be  such  as  is  not 
above  the  capacity  of  the  person  who  is  desired  to  compose,  for, 
if  it  is,  the  whole  benefit  resulting  from  the  exercise  will  be  nullified. 

A  theme  is  a  regular,  set  subject,  upon  which  a  person  is  required 
to  write  :  or  the  dissertation  that  has  been  written  upon  such  a  sub- 


904  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

.  ject.  Some  of  the  simplest  subjects  for  themes  are  those  drawn  from 
natural  history  or  natural  philosophy.  At  all  events,  they 
should  not,  m  the  first  instance,  be  drawn  from  subjects  of  an  abtruse 
and  abstract  character. 

1166,  The  following  may  serve  as  specimens  in  this  depart- 
ment : — 

Theme  1. — The  horse, — 1.  Describe  what  sort  of  an  animal  the 
horse  is.  3.  Tell  some  of  the  different  kinds.  3.  Mention  the 
various  ways  in  which  this  noble  animal  is  serviceable  to  man.  4. 
State  what  would  be  the  consequence  of  wanting  him.  5.  Mention 
the  treatment  to  which  he  is  entitled,  and  the  cruelty  of  ill-using  such 
a  creature. 

Write  themes  upon  the  cow,  the  dog,  the  sheep ^  poultry  ; 
and  follow  the  same  plan  as  that  followed  in  writing  upon  the  horse. 

Theme  2.  —  The  sun, — 1.  Begin   by  stating  what  the  sun    is. 

2.  Tell  all  you  know  of  its  size,  figure,  and  distance  from  our  earth. 

3.  Mention  the  effect  it  has  upon  the  earth,  and  the  benefits  we 
derive  from  it.  4.  State  what  would  be  the  consequence  if  the  sun 
were  extinguished  ;  and  what  our  feelings  ought  to  be  toward  the 
Supreme  Being  for  such  an  object. 

Write  themes  upon  the  moon,  the  stars,  fire,  air,  and  wa^ 
ter  ;  and  in  all,  follow  the  same  plan. 

Theme  3. — Day  and  night. — 1.  Tell  what  you  mean  by  day 
and  night.  2.  State  whether  they  are  always  alike  long,  and  what  is 
the  advantage  arising  from  their  length  being  different  at  different 
seasons.     3.  Mention  the  different  purposes  to  which  they  are  adapted. 

4.  Say  of  what  the  continued  succession  of  day  and  night  is  fitted  to 
remind  us,  and  how  this  should  lead  us  to  act. 

Write  themes  upon  the  different  seasons,  and  upon  the 
mountains,  rivers,  and  the  tides  of  the  sea  ;  and  follow  a 
similar  plan  in  the  whole. 

TJieme  4. — On  composition, — 1.  Explain  what  you  mean  by 
this  term.  2.  Point  out  the  necessity  of  studying  this  art,  by  show- 
ing how  much  it  contributes  to  add  to  the  value  of  one's  knowledge. 
3.  Mention  what  is  necessary  to  fit  one  for  composing  well.  4.  State 
the  means  by  which  skill  in  this  art  is  to  be  obtained. 

Theme  5. — On  company, — 1.  Explain  what  you  mean  by  com- 
pany. 2.  Show  how  natural  it  is  for  man  to  seek  society.  3.  State 
the  danger  of  keeping  either  too  much  company,  or  of  keeping  bad 
company.    4.  Point  out  the  advantages  of  good  company. 


PROSODY  —  C0MP0SITI0  2T. 


30o 


Write  themes  upon  conversation,  study,  improvement  of 
time,  choice  of  books,  tnemory,  and  the  different  organs 

of  sense,  etc.,  and  in  all,  follow  tlio  same  general  method  as  you 
did  in  writing  on  company. 

Theme  6. — Narratives, — Describe  the  place  or  scene  of  the 
actions  related,  the  persons  concerned  in,  the  time,  j)Osture  of  afiairs, 
state  of  mind,  motives,  ends,  etc.,  of  the  actors ;  results. 

Write  themes  upon  the  discovery  of  America,  the  French 
war,  the  Revolutionary  war,  the  battle  of  Bunher  Hill, 
the  French  Revolution, 

Theme  7. — J>issertations  on  remarkable  events  in  sacred  or 
profane  history. — The  place,  the  origin,  the  circumstances,  results, 
moral  influence,  etc. 

Following  tliis  or  a  similar  arrangement  of  parts,  write  composi- 
tions on  :  the  creation  ;  death  of  Abel ;  the  deluge  ;  the  world  after  the 
flood  ;  the  tower  of  Babel;  the  Israelites  in  Egypt ;  their  deliverance 
from  it ;  the  giving  of  the  law  from  Sinai  ;  the  advent  of  the  Messiah 
— his  death — his  resurrection  ;  destruction  of  Jerusalem  ;  the  siege  of 
Troy  ;  rise  and  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;  the  Crusades;  the  burning 
of  Moscow ;  thebattle  of  Waterloo ;  the  death  of  Bonaparte,etc. 

Theme  8. — JBiographies, — Give  an  accoimt  of  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  characters  in  different  ages  of  the  world, — warriors, 
statesmen,  artists,  philosophers,  poets,  orators,  philanthropists,  di- 
vines,— mentioning  what  is  known  respecting  their  country,  parent- 
age, education,  character,  principles,  exploits,  influence  on  society  for 
good  or  evil,  death. 

1167.  The  following  list  of  themes  is  selected  from  Parker's 
Exercises  in  Composition : — 

1.  On  Attention,  13.  On  Charity, 

Clemency, 

Compassion, 

Conscience, 

Constancy, 

Carelessness, 

Curiosity, 

Cheerfulness, 

Contentment, 

Diligence, 

Duplicity, 


2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
IL 


Adversity,  13. 

Ardor  of  Mind,  14. 
Art,  [cal,  15. 

Attachment,  lo- 16. 


23.  On  Early  Rising, 


Anger. 
Air? 

17. 

18. 

Benevolence, 

19. 

Beauty, 

20. 

Biography, 

21. 

Bad  Scholar, 

22. 

24 

"  Envy, 

25. 

"  Friendship, 

26. 

"  Fortune, 

27. 

"  Fear, 

28. 

"  Forgiveness, 

29. 

"  Government, 

30. 

"  Grammar, 

31. 

"   Greatness,  tru^ 

32. 

**  Genius, 

33. 

«  Habit. 

S06 


EI^GLISH     GKAMMAR 


84  On  Honor, 


48.  On  Novelty, 


63.  On  Piety, 


35. 
36. 
37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 
46. 
47. 

76. 

77. 
78. 
79. 
80. 
81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 
85. 
86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 
90. 

106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
110. 
HI. 

112. 
113. 


Happiness, 

Humility, 

Hypocrisy, 

History, 

Hope, 

Indolence, 

Industry, 

Ingraitude, 

Justice, 

Learning, 

Love  of  Fame, 

Music, 

Moon, 


49. 
50. 
51. 
52. 
53. 
54 
55. 
56. 
57. 
58. 
59. 
60. 
61. 


Night. 

Order, 

Ocean, 

Pride, 

Party  Spirit, 

Poverty, 

Principle, 

Perseverance, 

Patriotism, 

Politeness, 

Providence, 

Punctuality, 

Poetry, 


63. 
64 
65. 
66. 
67. 


70. 
71. 

72. 
73. 

74 
75. 


Religion, 

Reading, 

Sincerity, 

Summer, 

Spring, 

Sun, 

System, 

Truth, 

Time, 

Talent, 

Vanity, 

Virtue, 

Wealth. 


Knowledge  is  Power,  91. 

Progress  of  Error,  92. 

Progress  of  Truth,  93. 

Government  of  the  Tongue,  94. 

Government  of  the  Temper,  95. 
Government  of  the  Affections,  96. 

Love  of  Country,  97. 

The  Power  of  Association,  98. 

Immortality  of  the  Soul,  99. 

The  Uses  of  Knowledge,  100. 

The  Power  of  Conscience.  101. 

The  Power  of  Habit,  102. 

Life  is  Short,  103. 

Miseries  of  Idleness,  104 

Never  too  old  to  Learn,  105. 


Public  Opinion, 
Diligence  insures  Success, 
Idleness  destroys  Character, 
Contrivance  proves  Design, 
Avoid  Extremes, 
Visit  to  an  Almshouse, 
Pleasures  of  Memory, 
Example  better  than  Precept, 
Misery  is  wed  to  Guilt, 
Value  of  Time, 
Virtue,  the  way  to  Happiness, 
No  one  lives  for  Himself, 
Thou  God  seest  me. 
Trust  not  Appearances, 
Whatever  is,  is  right. 


"  An  honest  man's  the  noblest  work  of  God." 

Every  man's  the  architect  of  his  own  fortune. 

Man,  "  Mysterious  link  in  being's  endless  chain.'* 

"  A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing." 

*'  How  blessings  brighten  as  they  take  their  flight !" 

Advantages  derived  from  the  invention  of  the  mariner's  compass 
— of  the  telescope — the  steam-engine — the  art  of  printing. 

History  of  a  needle — a  cent — a  Bible — a  beaver  hat. 

Description  of  a  voyage  to  England — coast  of  Africa — Constanti- 
nople— South  America — East  Indies — China. 


APPENDIX 


I.  SUFFIXES. 

The  limits  of  a  ^ammatical  text-book  forbid  sucb  a  fall  discussion 
of  suffixes  as  is  usually  presented  in  works  on  Analysis  of  Words, 
and  it  lias  therefore  been  deemed  best  to  make  a  classification  on  a 
grammatical,  rather  than  a  philological,  basis,  leaving  to  the  works 
named  above  their  proper  oflBce.  The  following  is  taken  substantially 
from  Morell's  "  Grammar  of  the  English  Language." 

1 .  Structure  of  the  Noun, 

English  nouns  are  either — 1.  Original  Boots  ;  2.  Primary  Deriiaar 
tives  or  Stems;  3.  Secondary  Derivatives  or  Branches;  or,  4  Com- 
pound Words. 

1.  The  origlncU  noun  roots  consist  of  the  names  of  all  the 
common  objects  of  nature  and  human  life  around  us ;  as,  Sun, 
moon,  star,  sea,  store,  father,  mother,  hope,  fear,  love,  eye,  ear,  hand, 
cow,  sheep,  dog,  etc. 

These  words,  and  many  others  of  the  same  kind,  have  descended  to 
us  from  the  old  Saxon  stock,  from  a  period  lying  beyond  all  historical 
research.  Some  of  them  have  undergone  partial  changes  in  spelling 
and  pronunciation,  but  without  at  all  losing  their  original  character. 

2.  English  nouns,  which  cotne  under  the  title  of  primary  de- 
rivativeSf  are  also,  with  few  exceptions,  of  Saxon  origin.  They 
are,  for  the  most  part,  formed  as  follows  : — 

(1).  By  modiff/ing  the  root-vowel  (generally  of  a  primitive 

verb) ;  as,  Bless,  bliss  ;  feed,  food  ;  bind,  bond  ;  set,  seat ;  knit,  knot, 

net ;  sing,  song  ;  strike,  stroke,  etc. 
[Sometimes  the  noun  retains  the  original  verb-form.] 
(2).  By  modifying  the  final  co^tsonant.of  the  root,  or  adding 

another  consonant ;  as,  Stick,  stitch  ;  dig,  ditch  ;  heal,  healtJi ;  drive, 

drift ;  believe,  bdief,  etc. 


308 


ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


(3).  By7nodifi/inghoth  vowel  and  consonant;  as,  Live,Hf9j 
choose,  choice  ;  lose,  loss  ;  thieve,  theft,  etc. 

3.  Secondary  Derivatives  are  formed  by  a  considerable  va^,  iety 
of  suffixes. 

{a).  Saxon  derivatives  are  formed  by  the  following : — 


or, 

a/rd, 

art, 

ster, 

ess  (fern.), 


Ung, 

MUy 

ock, 
let,  or  et. 


(1).  Signifying  Agent  or  Boer. 

as,  sing,  singer, 

as,  lie,  liar, 

as,  drink,  drunkard, 

as,  brag,  braggart, 

as,  pun,  punster. 

as,  seam,  seamstress. 


Derived  from  Verbs. 


(2).  Forming  Diminutives. 


as,    dear,       darling. 

as,    lamb,     lambkin. 

as,    hill,        hillock, 
(stream,  streamlet, 
(flower,    floweret. 


Derived  from  Nomis. 


(3).  Denoting  Alstract  Ideas,  such  as  State,  Condition,  Action,  ete. 

Derived  from  Nouns. 


ship,.  as,    friend,  friendship. 

hood,  or  head,  as,    man,     manhood. 


dom, 
ery, 

age, 
ter, 
lock, 

ness, 


le, 
el, 
et. 


as,    king,    kingdom, 
as,    slave,    slavery. 


as,    till,       tillage 
as,    laugh,  laughter 
as,    wed,     wedlock 


•.     j-  Derived  from  Verbs, 
as,    white,  whiteness.   I  Derived  from  Adjectives 


(4).  Denoting  Instrument. 
as,     gird,     girdle. 


as,    shove,  shovel, 
as,    hack,    hatchet 


.  I 


Derived  from  Verbs. 


(6).  Latin  and  French  Derivatives  are  formed  by  the  following 
suffixes : — 


APPENDIX  —  SUFFIXES, 


309 


to,\  8or, 
trix, 


aster, 

cvlc,  le, 
ide. 


a/ry, 
cy. 


ence, 
ance 

ice. 


■i 


m,  \ 


ion, 
don 
tion 


merit, 
our,  or, 
ty,  ity. 

tude, 

ture, ) 
sure, ) 


(1).  Signifying  an  Agent  or  a  Person  generally. 

as,    auditor,  sponsor,    From  Latin  nouns  in  tor  and  sor. 
as,    executrix,  From  Latin  nouns  in  trix. 

( From  French  nouns  in  aire,  ier, 
as,    auctioneer,  ^  ^^^ 

From  French  nouns  in  e. 


(2).  Forming  Diminutives. 

as,    poetaster.  From  Italian  nouns  in  astro. 

,     ,  (From    Latin   nouns  in  culu^, — 

as,    animalcule,  \  -      i    i 

_.  ,  <     a, — urn  ;  as,  ammakulum,  par- 

as,   particle,  )       . 

\     ticiua,  etc. 

(3).  Signifying  Abstract  Ideas. 
as,    commentary. 


as,    clemency, 
as,    penitence, 

as,    justice, 

( action, 
as,  •<  passion, 
(junction, 

as,  ornament, 

as,  ardo(u)r,' 

as,  dignity, 

as,  multitude. 


as,  -j 


^  tincture, 
censure. 


jFrom  Latin  words  in  arius ;  as, 

(  commentarius. 

I  From  Latin  words  in  tia  ;  as,  de- 

\  mentia. 

(From  Latin  words  in  entia,  or 

l  antia;  as,  pcenitentia. 

c  From  Latin  words  in  itia  ;  as 

I  justitia. 

\  From  Latin  words  in  io  ;  as,  actio, 
\  etc. 

(From    Latin  words  in  mentum ; 

\  as,  omamentum. 

( From  Latin  words  in  or,  through 

(  the  French  ;  as,  a/rdor,  ardeur. 

J  From  Latin  words  in  tas  ;    as, 

(  dignitas. 

(From  Latin  words  in  tvdo;  as, 

\  mvMUudo. 

\  From  Latin  words  in  ura;  as, 

)  tinctura,  etc. 


Bemabe. — Many  nouns  of  the  above  description  are  formed  directly 


510  ENGLISH     GEAMMAR. 

from  verbs,  by  simply  changing  the  accent ;  e.  g.,  to  affiT^,  an 
ctf'fiX}     to   export',  an  ey^port;  also  some  monosyllables  are  both 

nouns  and  verbs ;  as  to  u%e,  a  use.  • 

(c.)  Greeic  Derivatives  are  formed  by  the  following  sufl&xes : —  ] 

(1.)  Signifying  Agent  or  Person.  \ 

an,           as,    musician.                    From  Greek  words  in  kos  {ko^).  , 

ist,            as,     sophist,                           "               "               istes  {Larrjc;),  \ 

ite,            as,    Israelite    (patro-     )      «               «               ites{iTm).  ' 

nymic),                 )  ! 

(2.)  Forming  Diminutives. 

.  .                        X    .  ■!_                    S  From  the  Greek  asteriskos,  ^ 

%8kf           as,    astensk,                  i                             /                \  i 

(3.)  Signifying  Abstract  Ideas.  \ 

e,  y,            as,    epitome,  anarchy.    From  Greek  nouns  in  e  {rj).  \ 

ism,sm,     as,    deism,                    j  From  Greek  nouns  in  im.5,  oi  i 

(                 isma  {tafior  lajua).  < 

ic,  ics,        as,    arithmetic,             \  ^^«"^  ^'^^^  adjectives  in  ikos,  a,  j 

(                    on  (f/cof,  a,  ov).  ; 

ma,            as,    panorama.                 From  Greek  nouns  in  ma  (jua).  \ 

sis,             as,    hypothesis.                From  Greek  nouns  in  sis  ((tlc).  \ 

4.  Compound  Nouns  of  Saxon  origin  exist  largely  in  the  pre-  ; 

sent  English  language,  and  new  ones  are  not  imfrequently  coined,  ; 

as  necessity  requires;  as,  housemaid,  railroad,  steamboat,  cast-iron,  \ 

etc.  "\ 

\ 

Compound  words  (except  new  terms  in  the  sciences)  derived  from  \ 

the  Latin  and  Greek,  are  borrowed  in  their  compound  from  those  Ian-  • 

guages. 

2»  Structure  of  the  Adjective. 

•English  adjectives,  like  English  nouns,  are  either — 1.  Original  \ 

Roots;    2.  Primary  Derivatives ;    3.  Secondary  Derivatives;  or,  4  \ 

Compound  Words.  \ 

1.  Many  adjectives  derived  from  the  Saxon  are  roots,  inasmuch 

as  no  simpler  form  of  the  word  can  now  be  traced ;  such  are  good,  : 

bad,  long,  short,  high,  thin,  thick,  whUe,  black,  etc.  ! 


APPENDIX  —  SUFFIXES. 


311 


2.  Pritnary  derivatives  are  also  of  Saxon  origin.  They  are 
formed,  like  the  noun-stems,  from  verbs,  noims,  and  other  adjectives, 
as  follows : — 

(1.)  By  modifying  the  vowel;  aa,fiU,full;  vyring,  wrong; 
^de, proud;  string,  strong. 

(2.)  By  modifying  or  adding  a  consonant ;  as,  loatTie,  loth ; 
Sour,  fourth. 

(3.)  By  modifying  both  vowel  and  consonant;  as,  udt,  wise; 
poe,  fifth. 

3.  English  adjectives  which  come  under  the  title  of  secondary 
derivatives  are  formed  by  a  considerable  variety  of  suffixes. 

(a.)  Saxon  derivatives  are  formed  by  the  following : — 


ed, 

as. 

left-handed. 

(participial  form). 

en. 

as. 

wooden, 

meaningr  material. 

em,. 

as. 

northern,  ) 
northerly, ) 

(( 

direction  (of  points  of 
compass) 

erly. 

as. 

foU, 

as, 

fourfold, 

u 

repetition. 

fuU, 

as, 

truthful. 

t< 

full  of 

ixh 

as 

whitish. 

tt 

j  somewhat  (diminutivei^ 

likeness. 

laiv. 

boyish. 

less, 

as. 

houseless. 

t< 

without. 

like. 

as, 

lifelike, ) 
lovely,  ) 

M 

ji  resemblance ;  or, 
1  fitness. 

ly. 

as. 

907ne, 

as. 

winsome. 

M 

{possessing 
i  the  quMity  of. 

vxvrd. 

as, 

homeward. 

M 

direction  toward. 

y» 

as, 

mighty. 

\  (adjectival    form  of 
\         a  noun). 

un  (prefix),  as,  imlovely. 

t* 

not. 

(&.)  Latin  derivatives  are 

formed  by  the  following : — 

«^, 

as,    equal. 

From  Latin  adjectives  in  o^ 

an, 

as,    human. 

u 

"              anus. 

ant. 

as,    elegant. 

tt 

ans. 

ent, 

as,    ancient. 

« 

ens. 

e  (preceded  by 

a  consonant), 

"!   ■ 

t(  jmtw  (preceded  by 
a  consonant). 

marine. 

M 

as,    terrific^ 

« 

mfi^cui. 

812 


ENGLISH    GKAMMAR 


as. 


as, 


pestiferous, 

visible,     ) 

culpable, ) 

timid, 

as  fertile, 

violent, 

verbose, 

copious, 

triple, 

double, 

migratory, 

captive, 
arduous, 
oblique. 


From  Latin  adjectives  in  y^'''  ^^ 


3,    ) 


bUis. 

idu8. 

His. 

olena. 

0SU8. 


pex. 

{ torious, 
i  sorious. 

tivus. 

uus. 

qutLS. 


ferous, 

ible, 

able, 

id, 

U,Ue, 

olent, 

086,  as, 

Otis,  as, 

pie,  as, 

ble,  as, 

torj/,  sory,        as, 

t%x>e,  as, 

'ux)us,  as, 

que  (French),  as, 

(c.)  The  principal  Greelz  derivatives  are  formed  by — 
ic,  as,     hieroglyphic,  (From    Greek    adjectives    in    %ko% 

ical,         as,    arithmetical,  (  (ikoq)  ;  as,  apL6(iTjTLKo^. 

S.  Structure  of  the  Pronoun. 

Pronouns  are  either — 1.  Original  Roots;  3.  Derivatives;  or,  3, 
Compound  words.  They  are  all  of  Saxon  origin,  except  '*  one  '* 
(235). 

1.  The  pronouns  which  may  be  regarded  as  original  roots,  aro, 

I,  me,  we,  us,  thou,  ye,  you,  he,  she,  it,  they,  who  (self),  this,  that. 

2.  The  following  are  derivatives  (chiefly  by  inflection)  : — 
Thee  is  the  objective  form  from  thmi. 

JSim,  originally  a  dative  from  the  masculine  he,  and  the  neuter  hit,  o£ 
the  Saxon  he,  heo,  hit  (he,  she,  it). 

J^er,  originally  a  dative  and  possessive  from  Saxon  heo. 

TJiem  "  "  "  "  that. 

Whom,  "  "  "  "  who. 

What,  neuter  form  from  who. 

One  (385),  derived  from  the  French  on,  an  abbreviation  of  homme. 

Which,  a  compound  form,  from  who  and  like  (contracted  in  the  Scot- 
tish dialect,  whilk). 

My  is  possessive  form  from  me;  thy,  thou;  our,  we  ;  your,  you;  their, 


APPENDIX  —  SUFFIXES.  313 

The  possessive  cases  (239),  mine,  thine,  etc.,  are  derived  from  the 
corresponding  possessive  pronouns  (391). 

3.  The  compound  pronoutis  are  those  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  words,  self  {selves),  and  evei',  with  the  simple  pronouns.  See 
list,  page  59. 

4,  Structure  of  the  Verb. 

English  verbs  are  either — 1.  Original  Moots ;  2.  Primary  JDeriva- 
tives  ;  or,  3.  Secondary  Derivatives. 

1.  All  the  verbs  of  the  '*  old  conjugation''  (irregular  verbs) 
are  of  Saxon  origin,  and  all  are  original  roots  of  the  English  lan- 
guage. 

A  considerable  number  of  these  have,  in  recent  times,  assumed  the 
regular  form ;  as,  climb,  laugh,  quake,  etc. 

2.  The  primary  derivatives  are  also  mostly  of  Saxon  origin. 
They  are  formed  from  original  nouns  and  verbs,  as  follows : — 

(1.)  By  modifying  the  vowel;  as,  lie,  lay  ;  fly,  flee;  fall,  felZ 
(transitive),  etc. 

(2.)  By  modifying  the  last  consonant,  either  as  to  form  or 
pronunciation ;  as,  advice,  advise  ;  hath,  bathe  ;  grease,  grease  (greez) ; 
use,  use,  etc. 

Note. — This  class  is  formed  from  nouns,  and  some  of  them  are  of 
Latin  origin. 

(3.)  By  modifying  both  vowel  and  consonant;  as,  drink, 
drench;  gldss,  glaze  ;  hound,  hunt,  etc. 

(4.)  By  prefixing  s  or  t;  as,  dun,  stun;  melt,  smelt;  whirl, 
twirl,  etc. 

3.  Secondary  derivatives  are  formed  by  a  considerable 
variety  of  suffixes. 

(a.)  Saxon  derivatives  are  formed  by  the  following  : — 

m,  signifying  to  make ;              as,  heighten,  weaken. 

er,  "          {frequentative)  ;  as,  climb,  clamber. 

ish,  "          {various) ;              as,  bum,  burnish. 

le,  "          {frequentative) ;  as,  nip,  nibble. 

y,  "         to  make;              as,  soil,  sully. 

Rejcakk. — Many  nouns  and  adjectives  have  been  turned  into  verbs 


314  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Without  any  change;  as,  dry,  to  dry ;  cool,  to  cool,  rain,  to  rain', 
mlt,  to  salt,  etc. 

The  growing  tendency  to  use  the  same  word  for  different  parts  of 
speech  should  be  resisted ;  as,  to  crop  a  farm ;  to  ship  goods,  etc 
Avoid  also  such  vulgarisms  as,  to  grow  corn,  and  the  like. 

(&.)  Latin  derivatives  are  formed — 

(1.)  From  the  root  of  the  verb,  by  rejecting  the  termination  of  tha 
infinitive;  as — 

Discern,  from    discernere. 

Concur,  "        concurrere. 

Condemn,  **        condemnare. 

etc.  etc. 

(2.)  From  the  supine  of  the  verb ;  as — 
Act,  from  actum. 

Audit,  "  auditum. 

Accept,  "  '       acceptum. 

(c.)  Greek  derivatives  are  formed  by  the  terminations  ise  or  ize  ; 
as,  baptize,  (from  jSaTrriCo).)  This  termination  has  been  adopted  to 
form  many  modern  English  verbs ;  as,  to  Italicize,  to  Germanize,  to 
scrutinize,  etc. 

5,  Structure  of  the  Adverb, 

English  adverbs  are  either — 1.  Original  Boots  ;  2.  Primary  Deriva- 
tives ;  3.  Seconda/ry  Derivatives  ;  or,  4.  Compound  words. 

1.  The  original  adverbs  consist  of  a  few  monosyllables  derived 
from  the  Saxon  :  as,  now,  then,  there,  here,  oft,  well,  ill,  not,  so,  thus. 
Some  of  these  were,  doubtless,  formerly  oblique  cases  of  Saxon 
pronouns. 

2.  Primary  derivatives  are  formed — 

(1.)  From  nmnerals  ;  as,  one,  once ;  two,  twice,  etc., — originally 
genitive  forms  of  the  numerals. 

(2.)  From  nouns,  by  adding  s,  as  need,  (must)  needs,  so,  alao^ 
mornings,  Mondays,  etc. 
(3.)  From  other  adverbs  ;  as,  there,  thither  ;  here,  hither,  etc. 

Remarks. — (1.)  A  few  adverbs  are  formed  from  adjectives  and 
prepositions,  by  adding  s  ;  as,  unaware,  unawares  ;  heside,  besides. 
(2.)  Many  words,  ordinarily  prepositions ,  are  joined  to  verbs 


APPENDIX  — SUFFIXES.  315 

flnthont  change  of  form,  and  used  adverbially ;  as,  to  go  down^ 
come  wp,  etc. 

All  the  jirhnary  derivatives  among  English  adverbs  are 
of  Saocon  origin,  and  nearly  all  have  been  inflections  of  nouns,  pro- 
nouns, or  adjectivbri. 

3.  SecQudary  derivatives  are  formed  as  follows : — 
(1.)  By  suffixes — 

ly,  as  wise,  vmely  ;  just,  justly. 

This  is  the  usual  form  of  the  adverb,  when  derived  regularly  from 
the  corresponding  adjective. 
ward  or  wards ;  as,  backward,  from  lack, 


backward,  from  6ac^,  )    .     .^  .       ,. 
sideward,  from  side,    |    o^  ^    » 


or  wise  ;  as,  always,  from  all  \  likewise,  from  like, 

(2.)  By  Prefixes— . 

a ;  as,  ashore,  adrift,  aboard,  etc. 

he  ;  as,  behind,  betimes,  etc. 

4.  Compound  adverbs  are  formed  by  combining  various 
parts  of  speech,  in  many  instances  being  abridged  forms  of  adverbial 
phrases  or  clauses  ;  as,  sometimes,  somewhere,  forthwith,  thereabout, 
straightway,  henceforward,  headlong,  etc. 

[Some  are  derived  in  the  usual  way  from  compound  adjectives ;  as, 
ill-naturedly,  ill-manneredly,  etc.] 

6.  Structure  of  the  Preposition, 

Prepositions  may  be  divided,  in  reference  to  their  structure,  into 
three  classes: — 1.  Original  prepositions;  2.  Derivatives;  3.  Verbal 
prepositions. 

1.  The  simple  prepositions  are  the  following  :—at,  by,  for, 
from,  in,  on,  of,  tiU,  to,  through,  up,  mth. 

2.  The  derived  prepositions  are  for  the  most  part  formed 
from  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  parts  of  speech,  by  means  of 
prefixes;  as — 

a  ;  amid,  about,  above,  along,  among,  around,  against,  etc. 

be  ;  beside,  before,  behind,  below,  beneath,  between,  beyond. 

[Some  are  formed  by  combining  two  simple  prepositions  together, 
or  adding  a  syllable ;  as,  into,  unto,  upon,  within,  uithout,  through- 
out, etc.] 

3.  Verbal  prepositions  are  the  imperative  and  parti" 


316  EN^GLISH    GEAMMAE. 

clpial  forms  of  verbs,  Vise^prepositlonally,  generally  in  abridged 
form  ;  as,  concerning,  during,  except,  excepting,  respecting,  touching, 
regarding,  save,  etc. 

Prepositions  of  the  first  and  second  class  are  of  Saxon  origin; 
those  of  the  third  class,  of  Latin, 

7.  Structure  of  the  Conjunction, 

Conjunctions  are — 1.  Simple ;  2.  Derivative;  or,  3.  Compound. 

1.  The  simple  conjunctions  are — and,  or,  but,  if,  as. 

2.  The  derivatives  are  such  as — nor,  neither,  either,  than, 
though,  whether,  even,  for,  that,  since,  etc. 

3.  Cotnpound  conjunctions  are  made  up  of  two  or  more 
other  words  ;  as,  howbeit,  in  as  far  as,  nevertheless,  moreover,  wherefore, 
whereas,  etc. 


II.  GENDER  OF  NOUNS. 

In  all  languages,  the  distinction  of  nouns  with  regard  to  sex  has 
been  noted.  Every  substantive  denotes  either  a  male  or  female,  or 
that  which  is  neither  the  one  nor  the  other.  This  accident,  or  char- 
acteristic of  nouns,  is  called  their  Gender.  In  English,  all  words  de- 
noting male  animals  are  considered  as  masculine  ;  all  those  denoting 
female  animals, /emwwe ;  and  those  denoting  things  neither  male 
nor  female,  are  termed  neuter.  "  In  this  distribution,"  says  Crombie, 
"  we  follow  the  order  of  nature ;  and  our  language  is,  in  this  respect, 
both  simple  and  animated."  Both  in  Latin  and  Greek,  many  words 
denoting  things  without  sex  are  ranked  as  masculine  or  feminine, 
without  any  regard  to  their  meaning,  but  simply  on  account  of  their 
terminations.  In  French,  all  nouns  are  regarded  as  either  masculine 
or  feminine,  which  is  a  still  greater  departure  from  the  order  and  sim- 
plicity of  nature,  for  which  the  English  language  on  this  point  is  dis- 
tinguished. 

Some  have  objected  to  the  designation  of  three  genders  ;  they  think, 
that,  as  there  are  but  two  sexes,  it  would  be  more  philosophical  and 
accurate  to  say  there  are  only  two  genders ;  and  to  regard  all  words 
not  belonging  to  these,  as  without  gender.  A  little  reflection,  I  think, 
will  show  that  this  objection  has  no  just  foundation,  either  in  phi- 
losophy or  in  fact,  and  that  the  change  it  proposes  would  be  no  im- 
provement.   It  has  probably  arisen  from  confounding  the  word  gender^ 


APPENDIX — GENDER  —  PRONOUNS.       SVt 

which  properly  signifies  a  kind,  class,  or  species  (Lat.  genus,  French 
genre),  with  the  word  sex,  and  considering  them  as  synonymous. 
This,  however,  is  not  the  case ;  these  words  do  not  mean  tlie  same 
tiling ;  and  they  can  not  be  properly  applied  in  the  same  way.  We 
never  say,  "  the  masculine  sex,  the  feminine  sex ;"  nor  "  the  male 
gender,  the  female  gender."  In  strict  propriety  of  speech,  the  word 
sex  can  be  predicated  only  of  animated  beings ;  the  word  gender,  only 
of  the  term  by  which  that  being  is  expressed.  The  being  man,  has 
sex,  not  gender ;  the  word  man,  has  gender,  not  sex.  Though  there- 
fore it  is  very  absurd  to  speak  of  three  sexes,  yet  it  may  be  very  proper 
to  speak  of  three  genders  ;  that  is  to  say,  there  are  three  classes  (gen- 
ders) of  nouns,  distinguished  from  one  another  by  their  relations  to 
sex.  One  denotes  objects  of  the  male  sex,  and  is  called  masculine ; 
another  denotes  objects  of  the  female  sex,  and  is  caMedi  feminine  ;  and 
the  third  denotes  objects  neither  male  nor  female,  for  which  a  name 
more  appropriate  than  the  word  neuter  need  not  be  desired. 

The  teiTQ  "  common  gender,"  applied  to  such  words  as  parent,  child, 
friend,  etc.,  does  not  constitute  a  distinct  class  of  words,  which  are 
neither  masculine,  nor  feminine,  nor  neuter,  but  is  used  for  conve- 
nience, merely  to  indicate  that  such  words  sometimes  denote  a  male, 
and  sometimes  a  female.  Instead  of  "  common,"  those  who  prefer  it, 
may  call  such  words  "  masculine  or  feminme." 


III.  THE  PRONOUNS,  MINE,  THINE,  etc. 

Some  grammarians  have  given  it  as  their  opinion  that  mine,  thine, 
ours,  yours,  theirs,  are  not  pronouns  in  the  possessive  case,  but  that 
that  they  are  something  or  other  in  the  nominative  or  objective  case, 
but  never  in  the  possessive.  This  is  surely  a  very  singular  notion. 
The  anomaly  which  such  an  idea  would  introduce  into  our  language 
would  be  a  curious  one.  According  to  this  view,  these  words  could 
belong  to  no  part  of  speech  hitherto  defined.  They  are  not  nouns,  for 
they  are  not  the  names  of  any  thing— nor  adjectives,  for  they  do  not 
qualify  nouns,  nor  can  ever  be  joined  with  them — nor  pronouns,  for 
they  never  stand  instead  of  a  noun,  but  always  instead  of  a  noim  and  a 
possessive  pronoun  together.  They  have  always  the  sense  of  the  pos- 
sessive case,  and  are  always  construed  just  as  the  possessive  case  of  a 
noim  is,  not  followed  by  a  noun ;  and  yet  they  are  never  in  the  posses* 


318  ENGLISH    GKAMMAR. 

Bive  case.  These  words,  standing  by  themselves,  have  no  fixed  or  do- 
terminate  meaning,  and  yet  in  sentences  they  may  have  as  many  differ- 
ent meanings  as  there  are  objects  capable  of  being  possessed.  Mine, 
for  example,  may  mean  my  horse,  my  farm,  my  Imt,  my  stick,  my  gun, 
my — any  thing  you  please.  And  besides  this,  those  of  them  which 
are  singular  in  form,  according  to  analogy,  may  have  a  'plural  verb ; 
and  those  of  them  which  are  plural  may  have  a  singular  verb ;  thus, 
"  John's  books  are  new ;  mine  are  old  ;"  again,  "  John's  house  is  built 
of  stone ;  ours  is  built  of  brick."  Such  is  the  result  to  which  this  no- 
tion leads  us ;  and  if  these  words  are  not  possess! ves,  but  in  the 
nominative  or  objective,  as  some  allege,  there  certainly  are  no  more 
curious  words  in  the  English,  nor  in  any  other  language. 


lY.  "WHAT"  AS  A  RELATIVE. 

"  Various  opinions  have  been  entertained  about  the  nature  of  the 
relative  ivhat.  It  is  said  to  be  *  a  compound  relative  pronoun,  in- 
cluding both  the  antecedent  and  the  relative,  and  equivalent  to  that 
which,  or  the  thing  which.'  Though  this  may  seem  plausible,  yet 
we  shall  find,  on  examination,  that  what  is  nothing  more  than  a 
relative  pronoun,  and  includes  nothing  else.  Compare  these  two 
sentences : — 

"  *  I  saw  whom  I  wanted  to  see  ;' 

"  *  I  saw  what  I  wanted  to  see/ 

"  If  what,  in  the  latter,  is  equivalent  to  that  which,  or  the  thing 
whicJi,  whom,  in  the  former,  is  equivalent  to  him  whom,  or  the  person 
whom.  '  Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash,'  is  equivalent  to  he  who, 
or,  the  man  who. 

"  And,  on  the  same  principle,  when  the  relative  is  omitted,  the  an- 
tecedent should  be  represented  as  equivalent  to  the  relative  and  the 
antecedent.  Thus,  '  I  saw  the  man  I  wanted  to  see.'  Here,  man 
should  be  represented  as  equivalent  to  the  man  whom. 

"  The  cause  of  the  error  in  respect  to  what,  is,  that  the  antecedent 
is  never  expressed  with  it.  It  is  not  like  the  word  who,  which  is  used 
both  when  the  antecedent  is  expressed,  and  when  it  is  omitted.  The 
relative  that,  however,  was  formerly  used  in  many  cases  where  we 
use  what,  that  is,  with  the  antecedent  omitted.  A  few  examples  of 
this  will  help  us  to  ascertain  the  nature  of  what :  '  We  speak  that 
we  do  know.' — English  Bible. — *  I  am  that  I  am.* — lb. 


APPENDIX  —  RELATIVES.  319 

"  *  Who  had  been  seen  imagine  mote  thereby, 
2%tW  whylome  of  Hercules  had  been  told.' — Spenser. 
"  '  Eschewe  that  wicked  is.' — Gower. 
•*  *  Is  it  possible  he  should  not  know  what  he  is,  and  be  that  he  is  ?* 

— Shakes. 
**  *  Gathei'  the  sequel  by  tliat  went  before.' — lb. 
"  In  these  examples,  that  is  a  relative,  and  is  exactly  synonymous 
with  whut.    No  one  would  contend  that  that  stands  for  itself,  and  its 
antecedent  at  the  same  time.     The  antecedent  is  omitted  because  it 
is  indefinite,  or  easily  supplied." — Butler's  Chammar,  p.  48. 
These  remarks  appear  to  me  just,  and  conclusive  on  this  point 


V.     IS    *^AS"    EVER    A    RELATIVE? 

That  the  word  as  should  not  be  considered  a  relative  in  any  cir- 
cumstances, I  think  is  plain  from  the  following  considerations : — 

1.  It  has  neither  the  meaning  nor  the  use  of  a  relative.  Its  oflBce 
is  simply  to  connect  things  compared,  and,  together  with  its  ante- 
cedent word,  to  express  the  idea  of  equality,  likeness,  etc.,  between 
them ;  thus,  "  James  is  as  tall  as  his  father." — "  Your  hat  is  such  as 
mine." 

2.  It  does  not,  like  a  relative,  relate  to  a  noun  or  pronon  before  it, 
called  the  antecedent,  nor  stand  instead  of  it,  or  of  any  other  word, 
but  is  related  only  to  the  comparative  word,  as,  such,  so,  etc.,  in  the 
preceding  clause.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "As  many  as  received  him," 
the  second  as  relates  to  the  first,  and  the  two  convey  the  idea  of 
equality.  Again,  "  Send  such  books  as  you  have:"  Here,  as  refers, 
not  to  hooks,  but  to  such.     Take  away  such,  and  a«  can  not  be  used. 

3.  As  can  nevei  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  another  relative  pro- 
noun, nor  another  relative  pronoun  as  a  substitute  for  it. 

4  In  sentences  in  which  as  is  said  to  be  a  relative,  it  evidently  has 
the  same  meaning  and  use  as  those  in  which  it  is  allowed  to  be  only 
a  conjunction.  Compare  the  following  examples  :  "  As  many  a^  five 
men  received  a  reward." — "  As  many  as  received  him." — "  As  many 
as  they  can  give."  In  all  these,  the  phrase  "  as  many  as,"  means, 
and  is  felt  to  mean,  the  same  thing — equality  of  number.  Thero 
surely,  then,  can  be  no  propriety  in  calling  the  second  as  a  conjuno- 


820  E:N^GL  I  SH    GRAMMAR. 

tion  in  the  first  sentence,  and  a  relative  in  fhe  other  two.  The  same 
thing  will  be  evident  if  we  change  the  antecedent  word.  Thus, 
"  Such  books  as  these  are  useful." — "  Such  books  as  are  useful."— 
"  Suxh  books  as  you  can  give."  _ 

5.  If  the  word  as  in  the  preceding  sentences  and  clauses  is  a  rela- 
tive pronoun,  for  the  same  reason  alleged  for  this,  the  word  than 
must  be  a  relative  in  those  which  follow.  The  construction  is  pre- 
cisely the  same :  "  More  books  than  were  wanted." — "  More  books 
than  are  useful." — "  More  books  than  you  can  give."  Now,  if,  in  the 
second  of  these  examples,  than  is  not  a  relative  in  the  nominative 
case  before  are,  nor  in  the  third  a  relative  in  the  objective  case  after 
can  give,  what  need  for  considering  as  a  relative  in  the  same  position, 
in  the  same  construction,  and  for  the  same  purpose,  to  denote  com- 
parison ?  There  is  the  same  ellipsis  in  both,  and  the  same  words  ne- 
cessary to  be  supplied,  in  the  one  case,  as  in  the  other.  Thus,  "More 
books  than  [those  which]  were  wanted." — "  More  books  than  [those 
which]  are  useful,"  etc.  So,  "  Such  books  as  [those  which]  were 
wanted." — "As  many  books  as  [those  which]  are  necessary,"  etc. 


YI.    ADJECTIVE    PRONOUNS. 

The  fourth  class  of  pronouns,  sometimes  called  adjective  pronouns, 
and  sometimes  pronominal  adjectives,  is  usually  subdivided  into  pos- 
sessive, distributive,  demonstrative,  and  indefinite.  Of  these,  the  first, 
or  2)OSsessive,  are  derived  from  the  personal,  and  in  meaning  are 
strictly  pronouns,  being  always  the  representative  or  substitute  of  a 
noun  ;  but  in  construction  they  are  adjectives,  and  are  always  joined 
with  a  noun,  and  hence  are  appropriately  denominated  adjective  pro 
nouns,  i.e.  pronouns  used  adjectively.  By  some,  they  are  classed 
with  adjectives,  and  csMq^l  pronominal  adjectives. 

In  many  grammars  the  possessives  my,  thy,  his,  her,  its,  our,  your, 
their,  are  set  down  as  the  possessive  case  of  the  personal  pronouns, 
with  mine,  thine,  his,  hers,  its,  ours,  yours,  theirs,  making  two  forms 
of  the  possessive  case :  thus,  my  or  mine,  thy  or  tJiine,  etc.  Which 
of  these  methods  is  adopted  in  teaching  or  studying  grammar,  is  a 
matter  of  no  practical  moment :  some  grammarians  adopt  the  one, 
and  some  the  other,  merely  as  a  matter  of  taste,  without  any  contro- 
versy on  the  subject.  The  classification  in  the  text  is  preferred  a?i 
being  on  the  whole  more  simple,  because  the  possessives  my,  thy^ 


APPEiq^DIX — ADJECTIVE     PRONOUITS.         321 

etc.,  like  the  adjective,  can  never  stand  alone,  as  the  possessive  case 
does,  but  must  be  supported  by  a  noun  following  them ;  thus,  we  say, 
"  It  is  the  king's ;"  "  It  is  yours  ;"  but  we  can  not  say,  "  It  is  your," 
— the  presence  of  a  noun  being  necessary  to  the  last  expression. 

This  classification  is  favored  by  the  analogy  of  other  languages 
both  ancient  and  modern.  The  possessives,  my,  thy,  etc.,  for  example, 
have  precisely  the  same  meaning  as  the  Latin  meus,  mea,  meum  ;  or 
the  French  mon,  ma  ;  or  the  German  mein  (or  meiTier),  meine,  mein; 
or  the  Anglo-Saxon  (which  is  the  mother  of  the  English  language), 
min,  mine,  min;  and  they  are  used  in  precisely  the  same  way. 
There  seems,  therefore,  to  be  no  good  reason  for  giving  them  a  dif- 
ferent classification.  Indeed,  the  only  circumstance  which  renders  it 
possible  to  regard  them  as  a  possessive  case  in  English,  is,  that,  like 
the  English  adjective,  they  are  indeclinable.  Had  they  been  declin- 
able, like  the  Latin  or  French,  etc.,  they  never  could  have  been  used 
as  a  possessive  case. 

The  words  belonging  to  the  Other  three  divisions  have 
been  found  more  difficult  to  arrange  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  They 
seem  to  occupy  a  sort  of  middle  ground  between  adjectives  and 
2yrotiouris,  and  are  sometimes  used  as  the  one,  and  sometimes 
as  the  other,  without  the  strict  and  appropriate  character  of  either. 
They  are  generally  adjectives  in  construction  having  a  noun  ex- 
pressed or  understood,  which  they  serve  to  limit  or  restrict  in  various 
ways.  On  the  other  hand,  with  few  exceptions,  they  are  so  often 
used  without  a  noun,  or  as  its  substitute,  that  they  are  not  improperly 
regarded  as  pronouns,  though  in  a  sense  less  strict  than  the  oth- 
ers; thus,  "Let  each  esteem  others  better  than  himself." — "Among 
men,  some  are  good,  others  bad,  none  perfect."  "  All  things  come 
alike  to  all,"  etc. 

From  this  equivocal,  or  rather  double,  character  of  these  words,  they 
have  been  variously  arranged  by  different  authors.  Some,  among 
whom  are  Grant,  Crombie,  Hiley,  Sutcliffe,  Allen,  Cooper,  Brown, 
etc.,  class  them  with  adjectives,  and  call  them  ^^  Pronominal 
Adjectives  j^'  and  others,  such  as  Lowth,  Priestly,  Smart,  Murray, 
Lennie,  Booth,  Churchill,  Wright  Cobbet,  Kirkham,  Smith,  and 
many  others,  class  them  with  pronouns,  and  call  them  ''Adjective 
Pronouns."  Since  all  are  agreed  about  the  use  of  these  words, 
it  seems  in  itself  a  matter  of  less  importance  to  which  of  these  two 
classes  they  be  attached,  or  whether  they  are  more  appropriately 
called  Pronominal  Adjectives  or  Adjecti'oe  Pronouns. 


322  ENGLISH    GRAMMA  B. 


YII.  THE  VERB. 

Though  there  is  little,  if  any,  difference  of  judgment  among  gram- 
marians, as  to  what  a  verb  is,  yet  all  have  probably  found  it  a  diffi- 
cult matter  to  give  an  accurate  and  at  the  same  time  a  brief 
de/ifiition  of  it ;  and,  accordingly,  nearly  all  grammars  differ  in 
their  definition  of  this  part  of  speech.  The  old  definition,  that  "  a 
verb  is  a  word  which  signifies  to  be,  to  do,  or  to  suffer,"  though  unex- 
ceptionable  as  any,  as  far  as  it  goes,  is  yet  greatly  defective  in 
stating  nothing  respecting  the  functions  or  use  of  this  part  of 
speech. 

The  use  of  the  verb  in  simple  propositions  is  to  affirm  or 
declare  ;  and  that  of  which  it  affirms  is  called  its  subject.  This  is 
always  the  office  of  the  verb  in  the  indicative,  potential,  or  subjunc- 
tive. In  the  use  of  its  other  parts,  however,  namely,  the  imperative, 
infinitive,  and  participles,  there  is  properly  no  affirmation,  though  the 
action  or  state  expressed  by  the  verb  in  these  parts  is  clearly  seen  to 
be  the  act  or  state  of  some  person  or  thing,  and  which  for  that  reason 
is  strictly  and  properly,  though  not  technically,  its  subject.  Thus, 
"  For  me  to  die  is  gain,"  is  a  simple  proposition,  containing  two  verbs, 
the  first  of  which,  to  die,  in  the  infinitive,  expresses  no  affirmation, 
though  it  evidently,  without  affirming,  attributes  di/ing  to  a  person, 
expressed  by  the  word  me.  So,  when  we  say,  "  I  see  a  man  walking," 
the  word  walking  expresses  an  act  of  the  person  man,  though  there  is 
properly  no  affirmation.  In  like  manner,  when  I  say,  "  Do  this,"  the 
verb  do  attributes  action  imperatively  to  the  person  addressed,  but 
there  is  no  affirmation.  To  speak  of  "  affirming  imperatively"  is  cer- 
tainly not  very  intelligible,  though,  for  want  of  a  better  expression, 
we  sometimes  use  it  in  a  loose  sense. 

For  these  reasons,  the  definition  of  a  verb  which  says  it  is  "  a  part 
of  speech  which  asserts  or  affirms,"  appears  to  me  to  be  defective.  It 
states  one  function  of  this  class  of  words,  but  excludes,  or  at  least 
does  not  include,  others.  It  gives,  as  the  distinguishing  characteristic 
of  a  verb,  that  which  does  not  belong  to  it  in  several  of  its  parts  and 
uses.    It  is  too  restrictive. 

The  definition,  "  A  verb  is  a  word  used  to  express  an  action  or  state," 
Is  liable  to  an  objection  of  an  opposite  kind  :  it  is  too  general,  and  not 
sufficiently  distinctive.  A  verb  does,  indeed,  "  express  an  action  or 
state,"  but  there  are  other  words  that  do  so  also.  Nouns,  such  as  love, 
desire,  wish,  hope,  etc.,  and  most  verbal  nouns,  such  as  eruption,  JktioTif 


APPENDIX,  —  DIVISION    OF    VERBS.  323 

collidon,  diffusion,  progression,  etc.,  express  dction,  and  many  words, 
both  nouns  and  adjectives,  express  a  state. 

The  definition  given  in  the  text,  though  perhaps  not  unexception- 
able, occupies  a  middle  place  between  these  extremes ;  avoids  the  in- 
definiteness  of  the  old  definition,  and  is  probably  less  liable  to  objec- 
tion than  most  of  those  which  have  been  given. 


YIII.  DIVISION  OF  VERBS. 

The  division  of  verbs  into  Transitive  and  Intransitive^ 
which  has  been  so  generally  adopted  by  grammarians,  was  a  step  in 
the  right  direction.  The  former  of  these  terms  is  specific,  and  indicates 
a  distinction  demanded  by  the  meaning  and  oflfice  of  those  verbs  to 
which  it  is  applied.  The  latter,  as  generally  used,  is  only  a  denial 
of  the  special  characteristic  of  the  former,  and  does  not  provide  for 
those  cases  in  which,  while  there  is  7io  object  required,  there  is 
demanded  some  attribute  or  limiter  of  the  subject  to  complete  the 


The  present  division  (316,  1)  is  made  upon  the  distinct  characteris- 
tic and  oflBce  of  the  verb,  and  divides  all  verbs  into  three  classes, 
transitive,  intransitive^  and  attributive,  distinguished  by  a 
clear  and  definite  characteristic  derived  from  their  use  in  the  con- 
struction of  sentences.  To  the  first  belong  those  which  are  used 
transitively,  whatever  be  their  meaning  or  form ;  to  the  second, 
those  that  are  used  intransitively ,  and  require  no  other  tvord 
as  a  complement,  whether  they  denote  action  or  not  (319) ;  and  the 
third,  those  whose  office  is  to  relate  an  attribute  with  the 
subject. 

This  arrangement  and  nomenclature  still  leaves  the  terms  active 
and  passive  at  liberty  to  be  applied  exclusively  to  the  two  forms 
which  all  transitive  verbs  assume,  called  the  active  and  the  passim 
eaice. 

It  dispenses  with  the  term  neuter  altogether,  as  applied  to  verbs, 
and  leaves  it  to  be  appropriated  in  grammar  to  the  designation  of 
gender  only. 


324  _E  N  G  L  I  S  H     G  R.A  M  M  A  R , 


IX.  THE  PRESENT  INDICATIVE  PASSIVE, 

AND  THE  PARTICIPLE  IN  "ING-"  IN 

A   PASSIVE    SENSE. 

According  to  the  definition,  the  passive  voice  expresses,  pas- 
sively f  the  same  thing  that  the  active  does  activelyc  For 
example,  "  Caesar  conquered  Gaul,"  and  "  Gaul  was  conquered  by 
Caesar,"  express  precisely  the  same  idea.  This,  however,  is  not 
always  done  by  the  regular  passive  form  in  the  j)resent  tense, 
though  it  generally  is  done  in  the  other  tenses.  Thus,  it  will  be  felt 
at  once  that  the  expression,  "  Caesar  conquers  Gaul,"  and  "  Gaul  is 
conquered  by  Caesar,"  do  not  express  the  same  thing. 

In  regard  to  this  matter,  there  are  evidently  ttvo  classes  of 
verbs ;  namely,  those  whose  present-passive  expresses  precisely  the 
same  thing  passively,  as  the  active  voice  does  actively,  and  those  in 
which  it  does  not. 

I.  To  the  first  of  these  classes  belong — 

1.  All  those  verbs  which,  in  the  regular  present  passive,  imply  a 
continuance  of  the  act ;  such  as,  to  love,  to  hate,  to  regard,  to 
esteem,  to  envy,  to  please,  etc.  Thus,  "  James  loves  me,"  and  "  I  am 
loved  by  James,"  express  precisely  the  same  idea,  and  consequently 
continuance  is  implied  as  much  in  the  passive  form  as  in  the  active. 
Hence,  '^Hs  loved  ^'  is  a  true  passive,  in  both  foi-m  and  mean- 
ing. In  verbs  of  this  class  the  progressive  form  in  the  active  voice 
is  seldom  used,  because  it  would  express  the  same  thing  generally  as 
the  common  form;  thus,  "James  loves  me,"  and  "James  is  loving 
me  "  (though  improper),  express  the  same  thing. 

2.  All  verbs  when  used  to  express  general  truths,  or  what  is 
usual  or  customary  from  time  to  time.  Thus,  "  Vinegar  dissolves 
pearls  " — "  Vice  produces  misery  " — "  The  cobbler  mends  shoes,"  etc. 
Passive,  "  Pearls  are  dissolved  by  vinegar  " — "  Misery  is  produced  by 
vice " — "  Shoes  a/re  mended  by  the  cobbler,"  etc.  In  verbs  used  in 
this  way,  the  progressive  form  is  not  employed.  The  use  of  it  would 
change  the  meaning  from  a  general  expression  to  a  particular  act. 
Thus,  "Vice  is  producing  misery,'  would  immediately  direct  the 
mind,  not  to  a  general  truth,  but  to  a  particular  case. 

But,  when  these  verbs  express  a  particular  act,  and  not  a 
general  truth,  the  present  active  and  the  present  passive  express 
differetit  ideas  ;  thus,  "  James  builds  a  house,"  represents  an  act 


A  P  P  E  N  D  I  X —  PASSIVE.  325 

in  progress  ;  but  when  we  say,  "  A  house  is  built  by  James,"  the  act 
or  operation  of  building  is  represented  as  completed. 

3.  To  this  class  belong  all  verbs,  which,  by  the  figure  called 
vision  (1046,  5),  are  used  in  the  present  tense  to  express 
tvhat  is  past.  Thus,  actively,  "Caesar  leaves  Gaul,  crosses  the 
Rubicon,  enters  Italy."  Passively,  "  Gaul  is  left  by  Caesar,  the  Rubi- 
con is  crossed,  Italy  is  entered."  In  all  these,  used  in  this  figurative 
way,  the  present-pas^ve  expresses  the  same  thing  as  the  present-ac- 
tive. 

II.  The  second  class  of  verbs,  consists  of  those  (x)erhaps  the 
greater  number)  whose  present-passive  implies  that  the  act  expressed 
by  the  active  voice  has  ceased,  and  the  effect  or  result  only  remains 
as  a  finished  act,  and  as  such  is  predicated  of  the  subject.  Thus, 
"  The  house  is  built."  Here  it  is  implied  that  the  act  of  building  is 
completed,  and  has  ceased,  and  the  result,  expressed  by  huilt,  is 
predicated  of  the  house.  In  all  verbs  of  this  kind,  the  past  participle, 
after  the  verb  to  he,  has  reference  to  the  .state  resulting  from  the  act  as 
predicated  of  the  subject  of  the  verb,  and  not  to  the  act  itself.  Strici> 
ly  speaking,  then,  the  past  participle  with  the  verb  to  he  is  not  the 
present  tense  in  the  passive  voice  of  verbs  thus  used  ;  that  is,  this  form 
does  not  express  passively  the  doing  of  the  act.  These  verbs  either 
have  no  present-passive,  or  it  is  made  by  annexing  the  participle 
in  iuff,  in  its  passive  sense,  to  the  verb  to  be ;  as,  "  The  house  is 
buUding." 

It  is  supposed  by  some  that  "  is  built,"  though  in  the  form  of  the 
present  passive,  really  is  a  present-perfect ;  because  it  represents  the 
act  as  completed,  and  because  the  perfect-definite,  in  Latin,  is  often 
translated  by  this  form  into  English,  Due  consideration,  however,  I 
think,  will  show  that  it  differs  quite  as  much  from  the 
present-perfect  as  it  does  from  the  present.  To  be  satisfied  of 
this,  compare  the  following  expressions :  "  This  garment  is  torn, 
merely  asserts  the  present  state  of  the  garment,  with  no  reference  to 
the  act  but  what  is  implied.  But  when  we  say,  "  This  garment  has 
been  torn,"  the  reference  is  chiefly  to  the  act  as  having  been  done, 
with  no  reference  to  the  state  of  the  garment  but  what  is  implied. 
The  one  asserts  that  the  garment  remains  torn,  the  other  does  not — 
it  may  have  been  mended ;  the  latter  is  the  regular  passive  of  the 
present-perfect  active,  the  former  is  not.  This  will  perhaps  be  more 
clearly  perceived  by  means  of  another  example  :  "  This  house  has  been 
painted,  but  the  paint  is  worn  off."    Tliis  is  good  English.    But  if  we 


3^6  EITGLISII    GRAMilAR. 

say,  "  TMs  house  is  painted,  but  tlie  paint  is  worn  off,"  we  would 
assert  a  contradiction. 

There  is  properly  no  passive  form,  in  English,  corresjyond-' 
ing  to  the  progressive  form  in  the  aetive  voice,  except 
where  it  is  made  by  the  participle  ing,  in  a  passive  sense ;  thus, 
"  The  house  is  building  " — "  The  garments  are  making  " — "  Wheat  is 
selling,"  etc.  An  attempt  has  been  made  by  some  grammarians,  of 
late,  to  banish  such  expressions  from  the  langu%e,  though  they  have 
been  used  in  all  time  past  by  the  best  writers,  and  to  justify  and  de- 
fend a  clumsy  solecism,  which  has  been  recently  introduced  chiefly 
through  the  newspaper  press,  but  which  has  gained  such  currency, 
and  is  becoming  so  familiar  to  the  ear,  that  it  seems  likely  to  prevail, 
with  all  its  uncouthness  and  deformity.  I  refer  to  such  expressions 
as,  "  The  house  is  being  built " — "  The  letter  is  being  written " — 
"  The  mine  is  being  worked " — "  The  news  is  being  telegraphed," 
etc.,  etc. 

Respecting  this  mode  of  expression,  it  may  be  noticed — 

1.  That  it  had  no  existence  in  the  language  till  ivifhin 
the  last  fifty  years.  This,  indeed,  would  not  make  the  ex- 
pression wrong,  were  it  otherwise  unexceptionable ;  but  its  recent 
origin  shows  that  it  is  not,  as  is  pretended,  a  necessary  form. 

2.  This  form  of  expression,  when  analyzed,  is  found  not  to  express 
what  it  is  intended  to  express,  and  would  be  used  only  by  such  as 
are  either  ignorant  of  its  import,  or  are  careless  and  loose  in  their  use 
of  language.  To  make  this  manifest,  let  it  be  considered,  first,  that 
there  is  no  progressive  form,  of  the  verb  to  he,  and  no 
need  of  it ;  hence,  there  is  no  such  expression  in  English  as  is  being. 
Of  course  the  expression  "  is  being  built,"  for  example,  is  not  a  com- 
pound of  is  being  and  built,  but  of  is  and  being  built ;  that  is,  of  the 
verb  to  be  and  the  present  participle  passive-  Now,  let  it  be  observed, 
that  the  only  verbs  in  which  the  present  participle  passive  expresses 
a  continued  action  are  those  mentioned  above  as  the  first  class,  in 
which  the  regular  passive  form  expresses  a  continuance  of  the  action  ,• 
as,  is  loved,  is  desired,  etc.,  and  in  which,  of  course,  the  form  in  ques- 
tion {is  being  built)  is  not  required.  Nobody  would  think  of  saying, 
"  He  is  being  loved  " — "  This  result  is  being  desired." 

In  all  other  verbs,  then,  ^ae  present  participle  passive,  like  the 
present  tense,  in  the  second  class  of  verbs  mentioned  above,  expresses, 
not  a  continued  action,  or  the  continued  receiving  of  an  action,  but 
that  the  action  had  ceased,  and  the  result  only  exists  in  a  finished 


APPENDIX  —  PASSIVE.  327 

state.  Thus,  "Our  arrangements  being  made,  we  departed. "— 
The  house  being  finished,  was  immediately  occupied." — "  Our  work 
being  finished,  we  may  rest,"  etc.  In  all  such  expressions,  the  present 
participle  passive  represents  the  action  as  now  finished,  and  existing 
only  in  its  restdts  (509).  This  finished  act,  then,  can  not  be  made 
unfinished  and  progressive,  by  being  asserted  of  a  subject,  which  is  all 
the  verb  to  be,  as  a  copula,  can  express.  Hence  it  is  manifest  that  is 
being  built,  if  it  mean  any  thing,  can  mean  nothing  more  than  is  built, 
which  is  not  the  idea  intended  to  be  expressed. 

8.  For  the  same  reason  that  is  being  built,  etc.,  is  contended  for  as  a 
proper  expression,  we  should  contend  also  for  "  Has  been  being  built." 
— "Had  been  being  built." — "  Shall  have  been  being  built." — "  Might 
have  been  being  built." — "  To  be  being  built." — "  To  have  been  being 
built." — "  Being  being  built." — "  Having  been  being  built."  When 
all  these  shall  have  been  introduced,  our  language  will  be  rich 
indeed ! 

4.  The  use  of  this  form  is  justified  only  by  condemning  an  estab- 
lished usage  of  the  language  ;  namely,  the  passive  sense  in  some  verbs 
of  the  participle  in  ing  (459).  In  reference  to  this  it  is  flippantly 
asked,  "  What  does  the  house  build  ?" — "  What  does  the  letter  write," 
etc. — taking  for  granted,  without  attempting  to  prove,  that  the  parti- 
ciple in  ing  can  not  have  a  passive  sense  in  any  verb.  The  following 
are  a  few  examples  from  writers  of  the  best  reputation,  which  this 
novelty  would  condemn  :  "  While  the  ceremony  was  performing."— 
Tom.  Brown.  "The  court  was  then  holding." — Sir  G.  McKenzie. 
"  And  still  be  doing,  never  done." — Butler.  "  The  books  are  selling." 
— Allen's  Grammar.  "  To  know  nothing  of  what  is  transacting  in 
the  regions  above  us." — Br.  Blair.  "  The  spot  where  this  new  and 
strange  tragedy  was  acting." — JS.  Everett.  "  The  fortress  was  build- 
ing,"— Irving.  "An  attempt  is  making  in  the  English  parlia- 
ment."— D.  Webster.  "  The  church  now  erecting  in  the  city  of  New 
York." — i\r.  A.  Meview.  "These  things  were  transacting  in  England." 
— Bancroft. 

5.  This  new  doctrine  is  in  opposition  to  the  almost  unanimous  judg- 
ment of  the  most  distinguished  grammarians  and  critics,  who  have 
considered  the  subject,  and  expressed  their  views  concerning  it.  The 
following  are  a  specimen  :  "  Expressions  of  this  kind  are  condemned 
by  some  critics  ;  but  the  usage  is  unquestionably  of  far  better  author, 
ity,  and  (according  to  my  apprehension)  in  far  better  taste,  than  the 
more  complex  phraseology  which  some  late  writers  adopt  in  its  stead; 


328  EKGLISH     GRAMMAR, 

as,  '  The  books  are  now  being  sold.' " — Ooold  Bromn.  "  As  to  the 
notion  of  introducing  a  new  and  more  complex  passive  form  of  conj  u- 
gation,  as,  '  The  bridge  is  being  built,'  *  The  bridge  was  being  built,' 
and  so  forth,  it  is  one  of  the  most  absurd  and  monstrous  innovations 
ever  thought  of."  "  The  work  is  now  being  published  "  is  certainly  no 
better  English  than,  "  The  work  was  being  published,  lias  been  being 
published,  had  been  being  published,  shall  or  will  be  being  published,  shall 
or  lolll  hav6  been  being  published,"  and  so  on  through  all  the  moods  and 
tenses.  What  a  language  shall  we  have  when  our  verbs  are  thus 
conjugated! — Brown's  Qr.  of  Eng-.  Gr.,  p.  361.  De  War  observes: 
"  The  participle  in  ing  is  also  passive  in  many  instances  ;  as, '  The 
house  is  building.' — '  I  heard  of  a  plan  forming,'  "  etc. — Quoted  in  FrOr 
zee's  Grammar,  page  49.  "  It  would  be  an  absurdity,  indeed,  to  give  up 
the  only  way  we  have  of  denoting  the  incomplete  state  of  action  by 
a  passive  form"  (viz.,  by  the  participle  in  ing  in  the  passive  sense). — 
Arnold's  English  Grammar,  p.  4G.  "  The  present  participle  is  often 
used  passively  ;  as,  the  '  The  ship  is  building.'  The  form  of  expres- 
sion, is  being  built,  is  being  committed,  etc.,  is  almost  universally  con- 
demned by  grammarians,  but  it  is  sometimes  met  with  in  respectable 
writers ;  it  occurs  most  frequently  in  newspaper  paragraphs,  and  in 
hasty  compositions.  See  Worcester's  Universal  and  Critical  Diction, 
ary." — Weld's  Grammar,  pp.  118  and  180.  "When  we  say,  '  The 
house  is  building,'  the  advocates  of  the  new  theory  ask,  "  Building 
what  ?"  We  might  ask,  in  turn,  when  you  say,  *  The  field  ploughs 
well,'— ' Ploughs  what ?'—*  Wheat  sells  well,'— '  Sells  what?'  If 
usage  allows  us  to  say, '  Wheat  sells  at  a  dollar,'  in  a  sense  that  i-s 
not  active,  why  may  we  not  say,  '  Wheat  is  selling  at  a  dollar,'  in  a 
sense  that  is  not  active  T — Hart's  Gram.,  p.  78.  "  The  prevailing 
practice  of  the  best  authors  is  in  favor  of  the  simple  form  ;  as,  '  The 
house  is  building.' " — Wells's  School  G'ram.,  p.  148.  "Several  other 
expressions  of  this  sort  now  and  then  occur,  such  as  the  new-fangled 
and  most  uncouth  solecismi  *  is  being  done,'  for  the  good  old  English 
idiom  '  is  doing  ' — an  absurd  periphrasis  driving  out  a  pointed  and 
pithy  turn  of  the  English  language." — JST.  A.  Review,  quoted  by  Mr. 
Wells,  p.  148.  "  The  phrase  '  is  being  built,'  and  others  of  a  similar 
kind,  have  been  for  a  few  years  insinuating  themselves  into  our  lan- 
guage ;  still  they  are  not  English." — Harrison's  Rise,  Progress,  and 
Present  Structure  of  the  English  Language.  "  This  mode  of  expression 
[the  house  is  being  built]  is  becoming  quite  common.  It  is  liable, 
however,  to  several  important  objections.  It  appears  formal  and 
pgdantic.     It  has  not,  as  far  as  I  know,  the  support  of  any  respectable 


APPE'NDIX — THE     VERB.  32C 

grammarian.     The  easy  and  natural  expression  is,  '  The  house  is 
buUding.'  "—Prof.  J.  W.  Oibba. 

Analysis  of  the  English  Verb, 

The  analysis  of  the  verb  shows  that,  except  for  convenience  in  the 
use  of  established  idioms,  there  are  no  more  than  four  radical  forms, 
viz : — 

I.   ^        . '     [•  the  simple  name  of  the  act,  which  has  three  uses. 
(wnte,  ) 

1.  Connected  directly  with  a  subject,  to  affirm  a  present  act 
or  state  ;  as,  I  love. 

2.  Used  indefinitely f  to  indicate  an  act  or  state,  in  a  general 
sense,  and  depending  upon  some  other  word,  generally  a  verb ;  ais, 
"  He  desires  to  write  "  (infinitive  use). 

3.  To  express  a  simple  command;  as,  write  (thou). 

II.  The  participle  in  ing^  denoting  the  action  or  state,  as  con- 
tinuing, or  incomplete  (397,  456).  In  the  progressive  form,  as,  "  I 
am  writing ;"  the  participle  is  an  attributive  of  the  subject. 

III.  The  past  tense,  in  the  regular  conjugation,  ending  in  ed 
(meaning  did),  and  in  the  strong  conjugation,  changing,  in  some 
instances,  the  form  of  the  root ;  as — Present,  write  ;  past,  wrote, 

IV.  The  fourth  form  (participial)  takes,  in  regular  verbs  ed,  and 
in  irregular  verbs  sometimes  changes  the  root ;  as — Present,  lorie  ; 
part.,  lo^ed.  Present,  write ;  part.,  written.  This  form,  in  transitive 
verbs,  is  used  in  both  an  active  and  a  passive  sense. 

1.  The  pa^t  participle  active  is  never  used  except  when  pre- 
ceded by  hate,  and  denotes  the  completion  of  the  act  it  expresses, 
referring  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  while  the  word  ham  expresses 
its  complete  possession  by  that  subject ;  as,  "  I  have  written,"  i.e.,  I 
am  in  possession  of  (have)  written  (by  having  performed  the  act).  It 
is  no  longer  in  the  future.  I  have  attained  to  it.  It  is  mine.  I  hane 
written.  In  this  sense,  written  is  a  verbal — the  object  of  the  verb 
have. 

2.  In  the  passive  voice  this  fourth  form  (loved,  written)  refers  to 
some  person  or  thing  as  the  receiver  to  the  act ;  as,  "  He  was  a  man 
loved  by  all."  After  the  verb  to  he,  the  past  pasi-iciple  passive  is  simply 
an  attribute  (see  508,)  and  till  the  pupil  is  thoroughly  familiar  with 
the  nature  and  idiomatic  use  of  the  so-called  passive  conjugation, 
should  always  be  so  analyzed ;  thus,  "  He  is  loved."  "  He  "  is  the 
subject;  "is  loved,"  is  the  predicate,  ol  which  "is"  is  the  affirmer 


330  E2!?^GLISHGEAMMAR. 

(copula),  and  "  loved  "  the  attribute.     "  Loved  "  is  found  in  tlie  past  : 

participle  passive,  from  love,  loving,  etc.,  and  limits  " he"  whicli  is  '- 

also  its  subject.     This  is,  strictly  speaking,  the  only  fbrjn  in  the  \ 

voice.  i 


See  "  Analysis  and  Composition." 


X.   FIRST  AND   SECOND,  etc. 

Two  or  more  adjectives  connected,  without  an  article  intervening, 
belong  to  the  same  noun  ;  as,  "  A  red  and  white  rose  " — that  is, 
one  rose  partly  red  and  partly  white.  Hence,  care  should  be  taken  to 
see  that  the  qualities  expressed  by  adjectives  so  used  be  consistent,  or 
such  as  may  be  found  in  one  object.  Thus,  it  would  be  improper  to 
say,  "  An  old  and  young  man  " — "  A  round  and  square  hole." — "  A 
hot  and  cold  spring  " — because  a  man  can  not  be  old  and  young  at  the 
same  time,  nor  a  hole  round  and  squa/re,  nor  a  spring  hot  and  cold. 
Hence — 

When  two  or  more  adjectives  express  qualities  that  belong  to 
different  objects  of  the  same  name,  and  that  name  expressed 
only  with  the  last,  the  article  should  be  placed  before  each  adjective. 
Thus,  "  A  red  and  a  white  rose,"  means  two  roses — one  red,  and  one 
white.  In  this  case,  it  makes  no  difference  whether  the  qualities  ex- 
pressed by  the  adjective  be  consistent  or  not,  since  they  belong  to 
different  individuals.  Thus,  we  can  say,  "  A  young  and  an  old  man  " 
— "  A  round  and  a  square  hole  " — "  A  hot  and  a  cold  spring  " — that  is, 
one  young  man,  and  another  old,  etc.  It  is  therefore  manifest  that 
we  can  not  properly  say,  "  The  first  and  second  page  "— "  The  fifth 
and  sixth  verse  " — "  The  Old  and  New  Testament " — ^because  no  page 
can  be  at  once  jirst  and  second — no  verse  fifth  and  sixth — and  no 
Testament  Old  and  New.  It  is  equally  improper  in  principle  to  say, 
"  The  first  and  second  pages  " — "  The  fifth  and  sixth  verses,"  because 
two  adjectives  can  not  be  joined  with  a  word  jointly  which  can  not 
be  joined  with  it  separately.  We  can  not  say,  "  The  first  pages,"  nor 
"the  second  pages,"  when  we  mean  but  one  first  and  one  second. 
Besides,  when  the  ellipsis  is  supplied,  it  stands  "  the  first  page  and 
the  second  page,"  and  the  omission  of  the  first  noun  can  not,  on  any 
correct  principle,  affect  the  number  of  the  second.  In  many  cases,  too, 
the  use  of  the  plural,  if  it  would  relieve  from  the  absurdity  of  uniting 


APPENDIX— TWO    FIRST,    ETC.  331 

Inconsistent  qualities  in  an  object,  will  as  certainly  lead  into  ambi- 
guity. For  if,  to  avoid  the  absurdity  of  sayiug  "  the  old  and  young 
man,"  we  say  "  the  old  and  young  men,"  the  latter  expression  may 
mean  fifty,  or  a  hundred,  or  any  number  of  men,  instead  of  two— one 
young  and  one  old.  Notwithstanding,  however,  usage  has  prevailed 
over  principle  in  this  as  well  as  in  other  cases ;  and  it  has  become 
quite  common  to  say,  "  The  first  and  second  verses  "— "  The  Old  and 
New  Testaments  "—"The  hot  and  cold  springs "—"  The  indicative 
and  subjunctive  moods,"  etc.  Where  no  ambiguity  exists  in  the  use 
of  such  expressions,  they  must  be  tolerated.  The  correct  expression, 
however,  when  more  than  one  is  intended,  is  made  by  repeating  tlw 
article  inth  the  adjective,  and  retaining  the  noun  in  the  singular; 
thus,  "  The  first  and  the  second  verse  "— "  The  Old  and  the  New  Tes- 
tament "-^"  The  hot-  and  the  cold  spring,"  etc.  Or,  "  The  first  verse 
and  the  second,"  etc. 


XI.  TWO  FIRST-THREE  LAST,  etc. 

The  expressions,  tivo  first,  three  last,  and  the  like,  have  been 
opposed  and  ridiculed  by  some,  on  the  ground,  as  they  allege,  that 
there  can  be  only  one  first,  and  one  last.  The  objectors  evidently 
have  not  well  considered  their  position  ;  for — 

1.  The  terms  first  and  last  do  not  necessarily  mean  only  one. 
First,  according  to  Webster,  means,  '^  preceding  all  others,^' 
The  tico  first,  then,  means  the  two  preceding  all  others,  and  the  three 
last  means  the  three  succeeding  all  others — expressions  in  which  there 
is  surely  nothing  either  ridiculous  or  absurd. 

2.  If  we  say,  "  The  first  days  of  summer  " — "  The  first  years  of  our 
life  " — "  The  last  days  of  Pompeii,"  which  nobody  doubts,  then,  it  is 
not  true  that  there  can  be  only  one  first  and  ons  last ;  and  so  the 
ground  of  objection  fails.  If  we  can  say.  "  The  laM  days  of  summer,' 
why  not  the  two  last,  or  the  three  last  ? 

3.  The  expression  objected  to  is  used  by  the  best  authorities 
in  the  language,  and  has  been  in  use  hundreds  of  years ;  and  there- 
fore, on  the  well-known  maxim,  "  Usage  is  the  law  of  language,"  if 
it  were  absurd,  it  can  not  be  rejected.  The  following  are  examples, 
most  of  them  mentioned  by  Mr.  Wells :  "  The  four  first  acts." — Bp. 
Berkeley. — "The  three  first  monarchies." — Warhurton. — "The  two 
first  persons." — Latham's  Eng.  Gram. — "  My  two  last  letters." — Ad- 
dison.— "  The  two  first  lines." — Blair. — "  Th»  *hree  first  generations." 


332  ENGLISH    GRAMMAE. 

— E.  Everett. — "  The  two  first  years." — Bancroft. — "  The  two  first 
days." — Irving. — "  The  two  first  cantos." — A.  H.  Everett. — "  The  foul 
first  centuries. "  —  Prescott. 

4.  This  e.Jcpressio}i  is,  in  some  cases,  evidently  better  than  the 
other.  It  is  probably  always  so,  when  the  number  characterized  as 
fvrst  or  last  constitutes  a  majority  of  the  whole.  When  we  say,  "  the 
first  four,"  there  is  evidently  a  reference  to  a  second  four,  or  a  last 
four.  But  if  the  first  four  constitute  a  majority  of  the  whole,  there 
remains  no  second  four  to  justify  the  reference.  Thus,  when  we  say, 
"  The  first  four  acts  of  a  play  were  well  performed,"  there  remains 
only  one  to  which  any  other  reference  can  be  made.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  a  whole  is  divided  into  equal  portions,  each  containing  a 
certain  number,  as  the  recurrence  of  the  census  every  five  years — of 
the  Olympic  games  every  four — of  the  sabbath  every  seven*days — of 
four  lines  in  each  stanza  of  a  poem,  and  the  like — then  the  expression 
first  four,  second  four,  last  four,  etc.,  is,  preferable,  because  it  implies 
a  reference  to  other  portions  of  equal  extent.  Also,  even  when  there 
is  no  such  reference,  it  is  often  properly  used,  especially  when  the 
number  is  large ;  as,  "  The  first  hundred " — "  The  last  thousand/' 
etc. 

5.  Several  distinguished  scholars  and  grammarians  have  ex- 
amined this  point,  and  expressed  their  views  respecting  it  as  fol- 
lows : — "  It  has  been  doubted  whether  the  cardinal  should  precede  or 
follow  the  ordinal  numeral." — Atterbury  says  in  one  of  his  letters  to 
Pope  :  "  Not  but  that  the  four  first  lines  are  good." — "  We  conceive 
the  expression  to  be  quite  correct,  though  the  other  form  be  often 
employed  to  denote  the  same  conception." — Gromhie's  English  Syntax, 
p.  240. — "  Some  grammarians  object  to  the  use  of  the  numerals  two, 
four,  etc.,  before  the  adjectives  ^rsi  and  last.  There  seems,  however, 
to  be  no  good  reason  for  the  objection,  and  the  expressions  two  first, 
two  last,  etc.,  are  fully  sanctioned  by  good  usage." —  Wells's  Grammar, 
p.  137. — The  ibllowing  is  a  note  on  the  same  page  : — "  It  has  been 
fashionable  of  late  to  write  the  first  three,  and  so  on,  instead  of  the 
three  first.  People  write  in  this  way  to  avoid  the  seeming  absurdity 
of  implying  that  more  than  one  thing  can  he  first ;  but  it  is  at  least 
equally  as  absurd  to  talk  about  the  first  four,  when,  as  often  happens, 
there  is  no  second  four." — Arnold. — "  Surely,  if  there  can  be  only 
one  last,  one  first,  there  can  be  only  *  a  last  one,'  '  a  first  one.'  I  need 
only  observe,  that  usage  is  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  former  phrase* 
ology." — Orant. 

"'  The  only  argument  against  the  use  of  two  first,  and  in  favor  of 


APPENDIX  —  ABBREVIATIONS. 


333 


substituting  jw's^  two,  so  far  as  I  can  recollect,  is  tliis : — In  the  nature 
of  tilings,  tliere  can  be  only  one  first  and  one  last  in  any  series  of  things- 
But  is  it  true  that  there  can  never  be  more  than  one  first,  and  one  last  ? 
If  it  be  so,  then  the  adjectives  first  and  l(ist  must  always  be  of  the 
singular  number,  and  can  never  agree  with  nouns  in  the  plural. 

*  We  are  told  that  the  first  years  of  a  lawyer's  practice  are  seldom 
very  lucrative.' — *  The  poet  tells  us  that  his  first  essays  were  severelyi 
handled  by  the  critics,  but  his  last  efforts  have  been  well  received.' 
Examples  like  these  might  be  produced,  without  number  ;  they  occur 
everywhere,  in  all  our  standard  writers.  *  *  *  When  a  numeral 
adjective,  and  a  qualifying  epithet,  both  refer  to  the  same  noun,  the 
general  rule  of  the  English  language  is  to  place  the  numeral  first 
then  the  qualifying  epithet,  and  then  the  noun.  Thus,  we  say,  *  The 
two  wise  men ' — '  The  two  taU  men,'  and  not  *  The  wise  two  men  ' — 

*  The  tall  two  men.'  And  the  same  rule  holds  in  superlatives.  We 
say,  *  The  two  wisest  men ' — '  The  two  tallest  men,'  and  not  '  The 
wisest  two  men  ' — *  The  tallest  two  men.'  Now  if  this  be  admitted  to 
be  the  general  rule  of  the  EngUsh  language,  then  it  follows  that 
generally  we  should  say,  'The  two  first' — 'The  two  last,'  etc.,  rather 
than  "V\\Q  first  two' — 'The  last  two,' qIq.  This,  I  say,  should ^e^ie- 
rally  be  the  order  of  the  words.  Yet  there  are  some  cases  in  which 
it  seems  preferable  to  say, '  The  first  two ' — *  The  last  two,'  etc."— i>r. 
Murdoch. 


XII.- ABBREVIATIONS. 


[The  following  list  contains  those  most  commonly  in  use  :— ] 

A,  or  Ans.  Answer.  [Academy. 

A.  A,  S.     Fellow  of  the  American 
A.B.  or  B.A.  Bachelor  of  Arts.^ 
Abp.         Archbishop. 

Account. 

In  the  year  of  our  Lord.^ 

Administrator. 

Alabama. 
A.  M.  (W  M.  A.  Master  of  Arts.* 
A.  M.        In  the  forenoon.* 


Acct. 
A.  D. 
Admr, 
Ala. 


1  Artium  Brrcealaureus. 

2  Anno  Domini. 

8  Artium  Mngiater. 
4  Ante  Meridiem. 


A.M. 

In  the  year  of  the  world.' 

Amt. 

Amount. 

Anon. 

Anonymous. 

Apr. 

April. 

Ark. 

Arkansas. 

Atty. 

Attorney. 

Aug. 

August. 

Bal. 

Balance. 

B.C.  or 

A.C.  Before  Christ." 

Bp. 

Bishop. 

Cal. 

California. 

Capt. 

Captain. 

5  Anno  Mimdi. 

6  Ante  Christum, 

334 


E2^GLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Cash. 

Cashier. 

Chap. 

Chapter. 

C.J. 

Chief  Justice. 

Co. 

Company;  County 

Col. 

Colonel. 

Conn.  Of 

Ct.  Connecticut. 

Cr. 

Credit ;  Creditor. 

Ct.,  Cts. 

Cent,  Cents. 

D.  C. 

District  of  Columbia. 

D.D. 

Doctor  of  Divinity.'' 

Dec. 

December. 

Del. 

Delaware. 

Dft. 

Defendant. 

Do.,ditto 

.  The  same. 

Dolls. 

Dollars. 

Dr. 

Doctor,  or  Debtor. 

E. 

East. 

Ed. 

Edition  ;  Editor. 

e.j?. 

For  example.^ 

Eng. 

England ;  English. 

Esq. 

Esquire. 

Etal. 

And  others.^ 

Etc.  Of  &c.  And  so  forth.^°  [ception. 

Ex. 

Example;  Exodus;  ex- 

Exr. 

Executor. 

Feb. 

February. 

Fla. 

Florida. 

Fr. 

France ;  French. 

Fri. 

Friday.                   [ciety. 

F.  R.  S. 

Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 

Ga. 

Georgia. 

Gen. 

General. 

Gent. 

Gentleman. 

Gov. 

Governor.                  [esty. 

H.  B.  M. 

His  or  Her  Britannic  Maj- 

H.M. 

His  or  Her  Majesty. 

Hon. 

Honorable. 

H.R. 

House  of  Representatives 

Hund. 

Hundred. 

Ind. 

Indiana.                [place. 

Va.OT  Ibid.  The  same ;  in  the"  same 

i.e. 

That  is. 

111. 

Illinois.                [month. 

Inst. 

Instant,  or  the  present 

Int. 

Interest. 

la. 

Iowa. 

7  Docto 

r  IHvinitatia. 

8  Ew.m 

nli  gratld. 

9  FA  alii. 

10  Et  cvntera. 

It.  Italian;  Italy. 
Jan.  January. 
J.  P.  Justice  of  the  Peace. 
Jr.  (^rJun.  Junior. 
Kan.  Kansas. 
Ky.  Kentucky. 
Lat.  Latitude. 
L.  I.  Long  Island. 
Lieut.  Lieutenant. 
LL.D.  Doctor  of  Laws." 
Lon.  Longitude. 
Lou.  or  La.  Louisiana. 
L.  S.  Place  of  the  Seal." 
M.  Meridian  or  Noon. 
Maj.  Major. 
Mar.  March. 
Mass.  Massachusetts. 
M.  C.  Member  of  Congress. 
M.  D.  Doctor  of  Medicine.^^ 
Md.  Maryland. 
Mdlle.  [Fr.]  (Mademoiselle),  Miss. 
Me.  Maine.  [men,  or  girs. 
Messrs.  [Fr.]  (Messieurs),  Gentle- 
Mich.  Michigan. 
Minn.  Minnesota. 
Miss.  Mississippi. 
Mo.  Missouri ;  Month. 
Mons.  or  M.  Monsieur. 
M.  P.  Member  of  Parliament. 
Mr.  Master  or  Mister. 
Mrs.  Mistress. 
MS.  Manuscript.  ' 
MSS.  Manuscripts. 
Mt.  Mount  or  Mountain. 
N.  North. 
N.  A.  North  America- 
N.B.  Take   notice  ^^  ;     New 

Brunswick. 

N.  C.  North  Carolina.      [land. 

N.  E.  North-east ;    New   Eng, 

Neb.  Nebraska. 

N.  H.  New  Hampshire. 

N.  J.  New  Jersey. 

No.  Number. 

Nov.  November. 

N.  S.  Nova  Scotia;  New  Style. 

11  Legum  Doctor. 

12  Loeun  fiigiUi. 

13  Medicinoe,  Doctor. 

14  Nota  bene  [note  well]. 


APPENDIX — A 

BBREVIATIOI^S.                 335 

N.  W.       North-west. 

S.  C. 

South  Carolina. 

N.  Y.         New  York. 

S.  B. 

South-east. 

0.              Ohio. 

Sec. 

Secretary. 

Obj .           Obj  ecti ve ;  Obj  ection. 

Sect. 

Section. 

Obt.           Obedient. 

Sen. 

Senator;  Senior. 

Oct.            October. 

Sept. 

September. 

0.  S.         Old  Styla 

Serg. 

Sergeant. 

P.,  pp.       Page,  pages. 

Servt. 

Servant. 

Pa.  or  Penn.  Pennsylvania. 

S8.<?rviz 

.  Namely  or  to  wit." 

Per,  or  pr.  By  the  ;  as,  'per  yard. 

St. 

Saint ;  Street. 

Per  cent.  By  the  hundred. 

S.  T.  D. 

Doctor  of  Divinity.!' 

Phila.       Philadelphia. 

S.  T.  P. 

Professor  of  Theology.** 

P.  M.        Postmaster. 

Supt. 

Superintendent. 

P.  M.        Aflernoon.i5 

s.w. 

South-west. 

P.  0.         Post-Office. 

Tenn. 

Tennessee. 

Pop.          Population. 

Tex. 

Texas. 

Pres.         President. 

Ult. 

Last  or  the  last  month.^i 

Prof.         Professor. 

U.S. 

United  States. 

P  S.         Postscript.!* 

U.  S.  A. 

United  States  of  America, 

Ps.            Psalm. 

or  U.  S.  Army. 

Pub.  Doc.  Public  Documents. 

Va. 

Virginia. 

Q.or*Qu.    Question.         [strated." 

Via. 

By  the  way  of. 

Q.  K  D.  Which  was  to  be  demon- 

Vol.,  Vols.  Volume,  Volumes. 

Qr.             Quarter. 

V.P. 

Vice-President. 

Rec'd  Pay't.  Received  Payment. 

Vs. 

Against ;  in  opposition.'^* 

Rep.          Representative. 

Vt. 

Vermont. 

Rev.          Reverend  ;  Revelation. 

w. 

West. 

R.  I.          Rhode  Island. 

W.I. 

West  Indies. 

R.  R.         Railroad. 

Wis. 

Wisconsin. 

Itt.  fion.   Right  Honorable. 

Wt. 

Weight. 

S.              South ;  Shilling ;  Sign. 

Yr. 

Year. 

S.  A.          South  America. 

18  Vide 

19  Sane 

licet 

t(B  Theologim  Doctor. 

15  Po»t  Meridiem. 

20  Sanctce.  Theologiw  Professor, 

16  Po.Ht  RcHptum. 

21   UltiTno. 

17  Quod  erut  demonstrandwrn. 

22   Ferstis. 

XIII.  WORDS  AND   PHRASES   FROM  FOR- 
EIGN LANGUAGES. 


French  Words  and  JPhrases, 


Apropos 
Beau  idecl 
Beau  monde 
Coup  de  main 
Cmip  de  soleil 


[ap'  ro  po], 
[bo  i  de'  al], 
[bo  mond'], 
[coo  de  mang'], 
[coo  de  so  lale], 


to  the  point, 
a  mode  of  beauty, 
the  fashionable  world, 
a  dextrous  movement, 
a  stroke  of  the  sun. 


336 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


En  masse 
En  route 
Expose 
Naiwte 
Eesume 
Sangfroid 
Sobriquet 
TSte  a  tete 


[an  mass'], 
[an  root'], 
[ex  po  zil], 
[na'  ev  ta], 
[ra  zu  ma'], 
[sang  frwa], 
[so  bre  ka'], 
[tate'  a tatej, 


in  a  body. 

on  the  way. 

an  exposition. 

simplicity. 

an  abstract  or  summary. 

in  cool  blood ;  apathy. 

a  nickname. 

in  close  conversation. 


Ad  fin/  em. 

Ad  infini'ium,. 

Ad  in'  ter  im^ 

Ad  lib'  i  ttmi, 

Ad  nuu'  se  am, 

Ad  vii  lo'  rem, 

A'  li  as, 

Al'iM, 

AV  ma  ma'  ter. 

An'  i  mus, 

Bu  ndfV  de. 

Com'  po8  men'  Us, 

Defac'  to, 

Dh'  o  vo  len'  te, 

Dh  no'  vo. 

Ex  eel'  si  or. 

Ex  offi'  ei  o. 

Ex  pcir'  te. 

Ex  po^tfuc'  to, 

Fdc  aim'  i  le, 

Grn'  tin, 

1)1  cog'  ni  to. 

In  Htan'  ter. 

In  sta'  ta  quo. 

In  tu'  tu, 

Ip'  se  dix'  it, 

Jv.'  re  di  vi'  no. 

Lap'  suft  lin"  giice, 

Lit  er  a'  tim, 


Latin  Words  and  Phrases, 

Lii'  sus  na  tu'  rm,     a  freak  of  nature. 
Mu' duHop  e  ran'  d i,  mode  of  operation. 
3hil'  tum  inpar'vo,  much  in  little. 
Nem.  con.,  without  opposition 

J^e  plus  uV  tra,         nothing  further. 
Per  cap'  i  ta,  by  the  head. 

Per  di'  em,  by  the  day. 

Pe-r  se,  by  itself. 

Pos'  se  com  i  ta'  tus,  an  urined  body. 
Post  mor'  tern,  after  death. 

Pri'  ma  fa'  cie,         first  view. 
Pro  ho'nopuh'li  cO,  for  the  public  goodc 
Pro  et  con,  for  and  against. 

Pro  tern' pore,         for  the  time  being. 
Quid  pro  quo,  an  equivalent. 

Ba'  ra  a'  vis,  arare bird ;  aprodigy. 

Sic  pas'  sim,  so  everywhere. 

Si  ne  di'  e,  without  day. 

Si  ne  qua'  non,         athlngindispensable 
Siib  rO'  sa,  under  the  i-ose. 

Su'  i  gen'  e  ris,  of  its  own  kind. 
Sitm,'  mujn  ho'  nium,  tlie  chief  good. 
Ter'  rafir'  ma,  the  solid  earth. 
TJl  ti  ma'  tum,  the  last  condition. 

Ver  ha'  tim,  word  for  word. 

VV  C:  ver'  sa,  change  of  terms. 

Vi'  va  vv'  ce,  by  the  living  voice 

Vox  De'  i,  the  voice  of  God. 

Vox  pop'  a  Hf  voiee  of  the  peopla 


to  the  end. 

to  infinity. 

in  the  mean  while. 

at  pleasure. 

to  disgust. 

according  to  the  val- 

otherwise.  [ue. 

elsewhere. 

a  benign  mother. 

the    mind  or  inten 

in  good  faith,     jtion. 

of  a  sound  mind. 

from  the  fact. 

with  God's  will. 

anew. 

higher. 

by  virtue  of  his  office. 

on  one  side  only. 

after  the  fact. 

an  exact  imitation. 

for  nothing. 

unknown. 

instantly. 

in  the  same  state. 

wholly;  entirely. 

he  himself  said  it. 

by  divine  law. 

a  slip  of  the  tongue. 

letter  for  letter. 


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